Editing Object permanence (section)

==In animals==
Experiments in non-human primates suggest that monkeys can track the displacement of invisible targets,<ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1037/0735-7036.110.4.386 | last1 = Filion | first1 = C. M. | last2 = Washburn | first2 = D. A. | last3 = Gulledge | first3 = J. P. | year = 1996 | title = Can monkeys (Macaca mulatta) represent invisible displacement? | journal = J. Comp. Psychol. | volume = 110 | issue = 4| pages = 386–395 | pmid = 8956508 | hdl = 2060/19970020679 | hdl-access = free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1152/jn.01056.2002 | last1 = Churchland | first1 = M. M. | last2 = Chou | first2 = I. H. | last3 = Lisberger | first3 = S. G. |name-list-style=vanc | year = 2003 | title = Evidence for object permanence in the smooth-pursuit eye movements of monkeys | journal = J. Neurophysiol. | volume = 90 | issue = 4| pages = 2205–2218 | pmid = 12815015 | pmc = 2581619 }}</ref> that invisible displacement is represented in the prefrontal cortex,<ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1038/nn990 | last1 = Barborica | first1 = A. | last2 = Ferrera | first2 = V. P. |name-list-style=vanc | year = 2003 | title = Estimating invisible target speed from neuronal activity in monkey frontal eye field | journal = Nature Neuroscience | volume = 6 | issue = 1| pages = 66–74 | pmid = 12483216 | s2cid = 2288571 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1093/cercor/bhl002 | last1 = Xiao | first1 = Q. | last2 = Barborica | first2 = A. | last3 = Ferrera | first3 = V. P. |name-list-style=vanc | year = 2007 | title = Modulation of visual responses in macaque frontal eye field during covert tracking of invisible targets | journal = Cereb Cortex | volume = 17 | issue = 4| pages = 918–928 | pmid = 16723405 | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.4702-03.2004 | last1 = Barborica | first1 = A. | last2 = Ferrera | first2 = V. P. |name-list-style=vanc | year = 2004 | title = Modification of saccades evoked by electrical stimulation of macaque frontal eye field during invisible target tracking | journal = J. Neurosci. | volume = 24 | issue = 13| pages = 3260–3267 | pmid = 15056705 | pmc = 6730017 }}</ref> and that development of the [[frontal cortex]] is linked to the acquisition of object permanence.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Diamond |first1=A. |last2=Goldman-Rakic |first2=P. |year=1989 |title=Comparison of human infants and rhesus monkeys on Piaget's AB task: Evidence for dependence on dorsolateral prefrontal cortex |journal=Experimental Brain Research |volume=74 |issue=1 |pages=24–40 |doi=10.1007/bf00248277|pmid=2924839 |s2cid=2310409 }}</ref> Various evidence from human infants is consistent with this. For example, formation of synapses in the frontal cortex peaks during human infancy,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Neville |first1=H. J. |last2=Bavelier |first2=D. |chapter=Specificity and Plasticity in Neurocognitive Development in Humans |title=The New Cognitive Neurosciences |url=https://archive.org/details/newcognitiveneur00gazz_541 |url-access=limited |editor-last=Gazzaniga |editor-first=M. S. |pages=[https://archive.org/details/newcognitiveneur00gazz_541/page/n1273 1259]–1270 |year=2000|publisher=MIT Press |isbn=9780262071956 }}</ref> and recent experiments using [[near infrared spectroscopy]] to gather neuroimaging data from infants suggests that activity in the frontal cortex is associated with successful completion of object permanence tasks.<ref name=Bairdetal>{{cite journal |doi=10.1006/nimg.2002.1170 |journal=NeuroImage |volume=16 |issue=4 |pages=1120–1126 |title=Frontal Lobe Activation during Object Permanence:Data from Near-Infrared Spectroscopy |year=2002 |last1=Baird |first1=AA |last2=Kagan |first2=J. |last3=Gaudette |first3=T. |last4=Walz |first4=K. A. |last5=Hershlag |first5=N. |last6= Boas |first6=D. A.  |pmid=12202098|s2cid=15630444 }}</ref>

However, many other types of animals have been shown to have the ability for object permanence. These include dogs, cats, and a few species of birds such as the carrion crow, [[Eurasian jay]]s and food-storing [[magpie]]s.  Dogs are able to reach a level of object permanence that allows them to find food after it has been hidden beneath one of two cups and rotated 90°.<ref name=Miller>{{cite journal|last1=Miller|first1=Holly|first2=Cassie D. |last2=Gibson |first3=Aubrey |last3=Vaughan |first4=Rebecca |last4=Rayburn-Reeves |first5=Thomas R. |last5=Zentall |title=Object permanence in dogs: Invisible displacement in a rotation task|journal=Psychonomic Bulletin & Review|year=2009|volume=16|issue=1|pages=150–155|doi=10.3758/pbr.16.1.150|pmid=19145026|id={{ProQuest|622272578}}|doi-access=free}}</ref> Similarly, cats are able to understand object permanence but not to the same extent that dogs can. Cats fail to understand that if they see something go into an apparatus in one direction that it will still be there if the cat tries to enter from another direction.<ref name=Dore>{{cite journal|last=Doré|first=François Y.|title=Object permanence in adult cats (Felis catus)|journal=Journal of Comparative Psychology|year=1986|volume=100|issue=4|pages=340–347|doi=10.1037/0735-7036.100.4.340|id={{ProQuest|617246971}}}}</ref> However, while cats did not seem to be quite as good at this "invisible displacement test" as dogs are, it is hard to say whether their poorer performance is a true reflection of their abilities or just due to the way in which they have been tested.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/not-bad-science/what-s-going-on-in-your-cat-s-head/|title=What's Going On in Your Cat's Head?|last=Muth|first=Felicity|work=Scientific American Blog Network|access-date=2017-10-10|language=en}}</ref> A [[longitudinal study]] found that [[carrion crow]]s' ability developed gradually, albeit with slight changes in the order of mastery compared to human infants. There was only one task, task 15, that the crows were not able to master. The crows showed perseverative searches at a previously rewarded location (the so-called "[[A-not-B error]]"). They mastered visible rotational displacements consistently, but failed at more complex invisible rotational displacements.<ref name=Hoffmann>{{cite journal|last1=Hoffmann|first1=Almut|last2=Rüttler |first2=Vanessa |last3=Nieder |first3=Andreas |title=Ontogeny of object permanence and object tracking in the carrion crow, Corvus corone|journal=Animal Behaviour |year=2011 |volume=82 |issue=2 |pages=359–359–367|doi=10.1016/j.anbehav.2011.05.012|s2cid=51913693|id={{ProQuest|885701151}}}}</ref> Another study tested the comparison of how long it took food-storing magpies to develop the object permanence necessary for them to be able to live independently.<ref name=Pollok>{{cite journal |last1=Pollok |first1=Bettina|last2=Prior |first2=Helmut |last3=Güntürkün |first3=Onur |title=Development of object permanence in food-storing magpies (Pica pica)|journal=Journal of Comparative Psychology|year=2000|volume=114|issue=2|doi=10.1037/0735-7036.114.2.148 |pages=148–157 |pmid=10890586 |id={{ProQuest|619461015}}}}</ref> The research suggests that these magpies followed a very similar pattern as human infants while they were developing.

Among invertebrates, [[cuttlefish]] have been shown to possess object permanence.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Schnell |first1=Alexandra K. |last2=Amodio |first2=Piero |last3=Boeckle |first3=Markus |last4=Clayton |first4=Nicola S. |date=2021 |title=How intelligent is a cephalopod? Lessons from comparative cognition |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/brv.12651 |journal=Biological Reviews |language=en |volume=96 |issue=1 |pages=162–178 |doi=10.1111/brv.12651 |pmid=32893443 |issn=1464-7931|doi-access=free }}</ref>