Editing Old French (section)

===Non-Latin influences===
==== Gaulish ====
{{further|List of French words of Gaulish origin}}

Some [[Gaulish language|Gaulish]] words influenced Vulgar Latin and, through this, other Romance languages. For example, classical Latin {{lang|la|[[wikt:equus|equus]]}} was uniformly replaced in Vulgar Latin by {{lang|la|[[wikt:caballus|caballus]]}} 'nag, work horse', derived from Gaulish {{lang|xtg|caballos}} (cf. [[Welsh language|Welsh]] {{lang|cy|ceffyl}}, [[Breton language|Breton]] {{lang|br|kefel}}),<ref>{{Cite book |last=Xavier |first=Delamarre |title=Dictionnaire de la langue gauloise |date=2003 |publisher=Errance |location=Paris |trans-title=Dictionary of the Gallic language |language=fr}}</ref>{{rp|96}} yielding {{abbr|ModF|Modern French}}  {{lang|fr|[[wikt:cheval|cheval]]}}, Occitan {{lang|oc|caval}} ({{lang|oc|chaval}}), Catalan {{lang|ca|[[wikt:cavall|cavall]]}}, Spanish {{lang|es|[[wikt:caballo|caballo]]}}, Portuguese {{lang|pt|[[wikt:cavalo|cavalo]]}}, Italian {{lang|it|[[wikt:cavallo|cavallo]]}}, Romanian {{lang|ro|[[wikt:cal|cal]]}}, and, by extension, English ''[[wikt:cavalry|cavalry]]'' and ''[[wikt:chivalrie#Etymology|chivalry]]'' (both via different forms of [Old] French: [[Old Norman]] and [[Francien language|Francien]]).
An estimated 200 words of Gaulish etymology survive in Modern French, for example 
{{lang|fr|[[wikt:chêne|chêne]]}} {{gloss|oak tree}} and {{lang|fr|[[wikt:charrue|charrue]]}} {{gloss|plough}}.<ref>Delamarre (2003, pp.&nbsp;389–90) lists 167</ref>

Within historical phonology and studies of [[language contact]], various phonological changes have been posited as caused by a Gaulish substrate, although there is some debate. One of these is considered certain, because this fact is clearly attested in the Gaulish-language [[epigraphy]] on the pottery found at [[la Graufesenque]] ({{small|A.D.}} 1st century).
There, the Greek word {{Transliteration|el|paropsid-es}} (written in Latin){{clarify|reason=Is this the Latin transliteration of a Greek word, or a Greek word?|date=July 2021}} appears as {{lang|xtg|paraxsid-i}}.<ref name="Lambert">{{Cite book |last=Lambert |first=Pierre-Yves |title=La Langue gauloise |date=1994 |publisher=Errance |isbn=978-2-87772-224-7 |location=Paris |pages=46–47 |trans-title=The Gallic language |author-link=Pierre-Yves Lambert}}</ref> The consonant clusters /ps/ and /pt/ shifted to /xs/ and /xt/, e.g. {{abbr|Lat|Latin}} {{lang|la|capsa}} > ''*kaxsa'' > ''caisse'' ({{abbr|≠|unlike}} Italian {{lang|it|cassa}})
or ''captīvus'' > ''*kaxtivus'' > {{abbr|OF|Old French}} {{lang|fro|chaitif}}<ref name=Lambert/> (mod. ''chétif''; cf. Irish ''cacht'' {{gloss|servant}}; ≠ Italian {{lang|it|cattiv-ità}}, Portuguese {{lang|pt|cativo}}, Spanish {{lang|es|cautivo}}).
This phonetic evolution is common in its later stages with the shift of the Latin cluster /kt/ in Old French ({{abbr|Lat|Latin}} {{lang|la|factum}} > ''fait'', ≠ Italian {{lang|it|fatto}}, Portuguese {{lang|pt|feito}}, Spanish {{lang|es|hecho}}; or ''lactem''* > ''lait'', ≠ Italian {{lang|it|latte}}, Portuguese {{lang|pt|leite}}, Spanish {{lang|es|leche}}). 
This means that both /pt/ and /kt/ must have first merged into /kt/ in the history of Old French, after which this /kt/ shifted to /xt/. In parallel, /ps/ and /ks/ merged into /ks/ before shifting to /xs/, apparently under Gaulish influence.

The [[Celtic languages|Celtic]] [[Gaulish language]] is thought to have survived into the 6th century in France, despite considerable cultural Romanization.<ref name="Helix">{{Cite book |last=Laurence Hélix |title=Histoire de la langue française |publisher=Ellipses Edition Marketing S.A. |year=2011 |isbn=978-2-7298-6470-5 |page=7 |quote=Le déclin du Gaulois et sa disparition ne s'expliquent pas seulement par des pratiques culturelles spécifiques: Lorsque les Romains conduits par César envahirent la Gaule, au 1er siecle avant J.-C., celle-ci romanisa de manière progressive et profonde. Pendant près de 500 ans, la fameuse période gallo-romaine, le gaulois et le latin parlé coexistèrent; au VIe siècle encore; le temoignage de Grégoire de Tours atteste la survivance de la langue gauloise.}}</ref>
Coexisting with Latin, Gaulish helped shape the [[Vulgar Latin]] dialects that developed into French, with effects including loanwords and [[calque]]s 
(including {{lang|fr|oui}},<ref>Peter Schrijver, ''Studies in the History of Celtic Pronouns and Particles'', Maynooth, 1997, 15.</ref> the word for "yes"),<ref name=Savignac/> sound changes shaped by Gaulish influence,<ref>Henri Guiter, "Sur le substrat gaulois dans la Romania", in ''Munus amicitae. Studia linguistica in honorem Witoldi Manczak septuagenarii'', eds., Anna Bochnakowa & Stanislan Widlak, Krakow, 1995.</ref><ref>Eugeen Roegiest, ''Vers les sources des langues romanes: Un itinéraire linguistique à travers la Romania'' (Leuven, Belgium: Acco, 2006), 83.</ref> 
and influences in conjugation and word order.<ref name="Savignac">{{Cite book |last=Savignac, Jean-Paul |title=Dictionnaire Français-Gaulois |publisher=La Différence |year=2004 |location=Paris |page=26}}</ref><ref name="Matas">{{Cite journal |last=Matasovic, Ranko |year=2007 |title=Insular Celtic as a Language Area |journal=Papers from the Workshop within the Framework of the XIII International Congress of Celtic Studies |page=106 |series=The Celtic Languages in Contact}}</ref><ref name="Adams">{{Cite book |last=Adams, J. N. |url=https://archive.org/details/regionaldiversif600adam_341 |title=The Regional Diversification of Latin 200 BC – AD 600 |date=2007 |isbn=9780511482977 |location=Cambridge |pages=[https://archive.org/details/regionaldiversif600adam_341/page/n300 279]–289 |chapter=Chapter V – Regionalisms in provincial texts: Gaul |doi=10.1017/CBO9780511482977 |url-access=limited}}</ref> 
A computational study from 2003 suggests that early gender shifts may have been motivated by the gender of the corresponding word in Gaulish.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Polinsky |first1=Maria |last2=Van Everbroeck |first2=Ezra |year=2003 |title=Development of Gender Classifications: Modeling the Historical Change from Latin to French |journal=Language |volume=79 |pages=356–390 |citeseerx=10.1.1.134.9933 |doi=10.1353/lan.2003.0131 |jstor=4489422 |s2cid=6797972 |number=2}}</ref>

==== Frankish ====
{{further|List of French words of Germanic origin}}

The pronunciation, vocabulary, and syntax of the Vulgar Latin spoken in [[Roman Gaul]] in [[late antiquity]] were modified by the [[Old Frankish language]], spoken by the [[Franks]] who settled in Gaul from the 5th century and conquered the future Old French-speaking area by the 530s. The word {{lang|fr|[[wikt:français|français]]}} itself is derived from the [[Late Latin]] name for the Franks.

The Old Frankish language had a definitive influence on the development of Old French, which partly explains why the earliest attested Old French documents are older than the earliest attestations in other Romance languages (e.g. [[Strasbourg Oath]]s, [[Sequence of Saint Eulalia]]).<ref>[[Bernard Cerquiglini]], ''La naissance du français'', Presses Universitaires de France, 2nd edn., chap. 3, 1993, p. 53.</ref> It is the result of an earlier gap created between Classical Latin and its evolved forms, which slowly reduced and eventually severed the [[mutual intelligibility]] between the two. 
The [[Old Dutch|Old Low Franconian]] influence is also believed to be responsible for the differences between the {{lang|fr|langue d'oïl}} and the 
[[Occitan language|{{lang|fr|langue d'oc|nocat=yes}}]] (Occitan), being that various parts of Northern France remained bilingual between Latin and Germanic for some time,<ref>Cerquiglini 53</ref> and these areas correspond precisely to where the first documents in Old French were written.

This Germanic language shaped the popular Latin spoken here and gave it a very distinctive identity compared to the other future Romance languages. The first noticeable influence is the substitution of the Latin melodic accent{{Clarify|text=|reason=Latin also had a stress accent—is "melodic" a technical term?|date=July 2024}} with a Germanic stress<ref>Cerquiglini 26.</ref> and its result was [[diphthongization]], differentiation between long and short vowels, the fall of the unaccented syllable and of the final vowels:
* {{abbr|L|Latin}}  {{lang|la|decimus}}, ''-a'' {{gloss|tenth}} > {{abbr|OF|Old French}} {{lang|fro|disme}} > French {{lang|fr|dîme}} {{gloss|tithe}} (> English ''dime''; Italian {{lang|it|decimo}}, Spanish {{lang|es|diezmo}})
* {{abbr|VL|Vulgar Latin}} ''dignitate'' > {{abbr|OF|Old French}}  {{lang|fro|deintié}} (> English ''dainty''; Italian {{lang|it|dignità}}, Romanian  {{lang|ro| demnitate}})
* {{abbr|VL|Vulgar Latin}} ''catena'' > {{abbr|OF|Old French}}  {{lang|fro|chaeine}} (> English ''chain''; Italian {{lang|it|catena}}, Spanish {{lang|es|cadena}}, Occitan {{lang|oc|cadena}}, Portuguese {{lang|pt|cadeia}})

Additionally, two phonemes that had long since died out in Vulgar Latin were reintroduced: {{IPA|[h]}} and {{IPA|[w]}} (> {{abbr|OF|Old French}} ''g(u)-'', {{abbr|ONF|Old Norman French??}} ''w-'' cf. [[Picard language|Picard]] ''w-''):
* {{abbr|VL|Vulgar Latin}} ''altu'' > {{abbr|OF|Old French}}  {{lang|fro|halt}} {{gloss|high}} (influenced by Old Low Frankish [{{abbr|OLF|Old Low Frankish}}] ''*hōh'' ; ≠ Italian, Portuguese  {{lang|und-Latn|alto}}, Catalan {{lang|ca|alt}}, Old Occitan {{lang|pro|aut}})
* {{abbr|L|Latin}}  {{lang|la|vespa}} > {{abbr|ONF|Old Norman French??}} ''wespe'', {{abbr|OF|Old French}}  {{lang|fro|guespe}}, French  {{lang|fr|guêpe}}, Picard {{lang|pcd|wèpe}}, Walloon {{lang|wa|wèsse}}, all {{gloss|wasp}} (influenced by {{abbr|OLF|Old Low Frankish}} {{lang|frk|wapsa|proto=yes}}; ≠ Occitan  {{lang|oc|vèspa}}, Italian  {{lang|it|vespa}}, Spanish  {{lang|es|avispa}})
* {{abbr|L|Latin}} {{lang|la|viscus}} > French  {{lang|fr|gui}} {{gloss|mistletoe}} (influenced by {{abbr|OLF|Old Low Frankish}} {{lang|frk|wīhsila|proto=yes}} {{gloss|morello}} with analogous fruits, when they are not ripe; ≠ Occitan {{lang|oc|vesc}}, Italian {{lang|it|vischio}})
* {{abbr|LL|Late Latin}}  ''vulpiculu'' {{gloss|fox kit}} (from {{abbr|L|Latin}} {{lang|la|vulpes}} {{gloss|fox}}) > {{abbr|OLF|Old Low Frankish}} ''golpilz'', Picard {{lang|pcd|woupil}} {{gloss|fox}} (influenced by {{abbr|OLF|Old Low Frankish}} {{lang|frk|wulf|proto=yes}} {{gloss|wolf}}; ≠ Occitan {{lang|oc|volpìlh}}, Old Italian ''volpiglio'', Spanish {{lang|es|vulpeja}} {{gloss|vixen}})

In contrast, the Italian, Portuguese and Spanish words of Germanic origin borrowed from French or directly from Germanic retain {{IPA|/gw/}} ~ {{IPA|/g/}}, e.g. Italian, Spanish {{lang|und-Latn|guerra}} {{gloss|war}}, alongside {{IPA|/g/}} in French {{lang|fr|guerre}}). These examples show a clear consequence of bilingualism, that sometimes even changed the first syllable of the Latin words.
One example of a Latin word influencing an {{abbr|OLF|Old Low Frankish}} loan is ''framboise'' {{gloss|raspberry}}, from {{abbr|OF|Old French}} {{lang|fro|frambeise}}, from {{abbr|OLF|Old Low Frankish}} {{lang|frk|brāmbesi|proto=yes}} {{gloss|blackberry}} (cf. Dutch ''braambes'', ''braambezie''; akin to German {{lang|de|Brombeere}}, English dial. ''bramberry'') blended with {{abbr|LL|Late Latin}} ''fraga'' or {{abbr|OF|Old French}} {{lang|fro|fraie}} {{gloss|strawberry}}, which explains the replacement {{IPA|[b]}} > {{IPA|[f]}} and in turn the final ''-se'' of ''framboise'' added to {{abbr|OF|Old French}} {{lang|fro|fraie}} to make ''freise'', modern {{lang|fr|fraise}} (≠ Walloon {{lang|wa|frève}}, Occitan {{lang|oc|fraga}}, Romanian {{lang|ro|fragă}}, Italian {{lang|it|fragola}}, ''fravola'' {{gloss|strawberry}}).<ref>{{Cite web |title=Etymology of ''frambuesa'' (Spanish) |url=http://buscon.rae.es/draeI/SrvltConsulta?TIPO_BUS=3&LEMA=frambuesa |access-date=2013-06-16 |publisher=Buscon.rae.es}}</ref>{{efn|Portuguese {{lang|pt|framboesa}} {{gloss|raspberry}} and Spanish {{lang|es|frambuesa}} are French loans.|name=|group=lower-roman}}

[[Mildred Pope]] estimated that perhaps still 15% of the vocabulary of Modern French derives from Germanic sources. This proportion was larger in Old French, because [[Middle French]] borrowed heavily from Latin and Italian.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Pope |first=Mildred Katherine |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=K9JRAQAAIAAJ |title=From Latin to Modern French with Especial Consideration of Anglo-Norman: Phonology and Morphology |date=1934 |publisher=Manchester University Press |isbn=9780719001765 |access-date=15 March 2023}}</ref>
<!-- Nevertheless a large number of words like [[wikt:haïr|''haïr'']] "to hate" (≠ {{abbr|Lat|Latin}} ''odiare'' > Italian ''odiare'' / Occitan ''asirar'') or [[wikt:honte|''honte'']] "shame" (≠ {{abbr|Lat|Latin}} ''verēcundia'' > Occitan and Portuguese ''vergonha'', Italian ''vergogna'', Spanish ''vergüenza'') are still common.-->