Editing Onycha (section)

==Lesser recognized contenders==

There are several lesser recognized contenders for the title "Onycha" which should also be mentioned here:

===Benzoin===
{{main|Benzoin (resin)}}
The internationally renowned Bible scholar Bochart stated, at one point in his research, that onycha was actually benzoin, a gum-resin from the Styrax species.<ref name="ReferenceB"/> H.J. Abrahams states that the use of benzoin in the Biblical incense is not inconceivable since Syro-Arabian tribes maintained extensive trade routes prior to Hellenism. Styrax Benzoin was available via import to the biblical lands during the Old Testament era. Herodotus of Halicarnassus in the 5th century BCE indicates that different kinds of styrax resins were traded. Styrax benzoin was used by the ancient Egyptians in the art of perfumery and incense. The apothecary of Shemot (book of Exodus) would have been familiar with its aromatic uses. S. benzoin has a history steeped in antiquity and was once employed as an incense in Egypt. All the compounds identified in benzoin resin were detected in an archaeological organic residue from an Egyptian ceramic censer, thus proving that this resin was used as one of the components of the mixture of organic materials burned as incense in ancient Egypt.<ref>Journal of Chromatography A Volume 1134, Issues 1-2, 17 November 2006, Pages 298-304, Aromatic resin characterisation by gas chromatography–mass spectrometry: Raw and archaeological materials, Francesca Modugnoa, Erika Ribechinia and Maria Perla Colombini, a Dipartimento di Chimica e Chimica Industriale, Università di Pisa, via Risorgimento 35-56126 Pisa, Italy</ref> An ancient Egyptian perfume formula (1200 BCE) contained benzoin as one of its chief ingredients.<ref>''Aromatherapy: A Complete Guide to the Healing Art'', By Kathi Keville, Mindy Green</ref> The name "benzoin" is probably derived from Arabic lubān jāwī (لبان جاوي, "Javan frankincense"); compare the mid-eastern terms "gum benjamin" and "benjoin". The word 'Storax' is an alteration of the Late Latin styrax. In the ''[[Orphic Hymns]]'' it is στόρακας or στόρακα. As pointed out earlier, the original word shecheleth was replaced with onycha by the Septuagint translation. Onycha in turn is derived from the onyx stone meaning "fingernail". Conder writes that "the root of the Hebrew word [shecheleth] means to drop or distil, and shecheleth would seem, therefore, to mean some exudation.”<ref name="ReferenceC"/> Another writer says that the Hebrew shecheleth identifies with the Syriac shehelta which is translated as “a tear or distillation” and that “the context and the etymology seem to require the gum of some aromatic plant . . . The Hebrew word would seem to mean something that exuded, having odorous qualities.”<ref name=Hagensick /> The book of Ecclesiasticus lists storax as one of the ingredients when alluding to the sacred incense of the biblical tabernacle.<ref>Ecclesiasticus 24:15</ref> The Hindustanis use Benzoin to burn in their temples—a circumstance strongly in favor of the hypothesis that benzoin is part of the incense formula of Exodus.<ref>''Cyclopaedia of Biblical, theological, and ecclesiastical literature'', Volume 9, By John McClintock, James Strong</ref> The infrequent mention of benzoin by name in antiquity is quite suspicious considering its importance in ancient recipes.<ref name="ReferenceD">Calcott, Maria, A Scripture Herbal, London: Longman, Brown, Green, and Longmans, Paternoster-Row, 1842</ref> It stands to reason it must have been known by another name not currently used today. References to it by name are conspicuously missing also from the Old Testament. Callcott writes “It has been suggested<ref>By C.H., Esq.</ref> that Gum Benzoin, which is not mentioned by any other name in scripture, must be onycha. Its fracture has exactly the lustre required by the name. . . The gum is a secretion of the bark, and is of great efficacy in healing wounds. . . Such are the pretensions of the Benzoin to be looked upon as the true Onycha, which, from the text, as I have already said, must have been some fragrant vegetable gum in itself, of foreign production, and ranking with stacte, and myrrh, and galbanum . . . all which conditions are fulfilled by the Gum Benzoin.”<ref name="ReferenceD"/> Dioscorides and Galen describe two kinds of bdellium, the second of which is Benzoin, according to Hardouin and Sprengel.<ref>Smith, William George, A Dictionary of Greek and Roman antiquities</ref> Pererra describes benzoin tears as "flattened pieces, some of which are angular, and the larger of them . . . an inch in length".<ref>The Elements of materia medica and therapeutics, Volume 2 By Jonathan Pereira</ref> He says that "externally, these pieces are shiny." This description most certainly fits well with the interpretation of "onycha" which means "fingernail." He continues to say many of the pieces "are of an amber or reddish-yellow colour" and continues to describe parts of it as "translucent or milky, and frequently striped." This is a good description of the appearance of various onyx stones, from which the name onycha is derived. He says that many tears of Styrax benzoin "are translucent, or, in a few cases, almost transparent."<ref name="Pereira">Pereira</ref> One type of benzoin has "numerous, white, small pieces . . . intermingled, which thereby give the broken surface a speckled appearance" which he calls "marbly."<ref name="Pereira"/> As mentioned above, although the word onycha has been interpreted as meaning "nail" it is pointed out that nail or claw is actually an extended connotation of onyx, derived from the translucent and sometimes veined appearance of the gemstone onyx. Onyx comes in a variety of colors the most prominent being either the black and veined striped gem or the pinkish translucent striped gem. One related Styrax is black and the benzoin discussed thus far seems to be of the pinkish, translucent sort. Steeping Styrax benzoin tears in wine can enhance its fragrance as well as its translucent qualities and "shiny" appearance, thus making it appear even more like the onyx gem. Rambam stated that soaking onycha in wine made it beautiful.<ref name="ReferenceE">Kerithoth 6a; Yad, Kley HaMikdash 2:5</ref> Benzoin tears look very different from other resins and appear to be small stones rather than the vegetable product that it is.{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}}

Rashi writes that onycha was a root from the ground. Benzoin almonds do not resemble the resins they actually are but appear as a rough stony almonds. Not being native to Palestine they could easily have been mistaken as portions of a root since they do not seem to adequately resemble any other portion of a plant body. However it seems that the root of benzoin was also used. The ancient Greeks and Romans used benzoin root in a seasoning sauce for a meat boiled in sweet herbs.<ref>Soyer, Alexis, The Pantropheon: A History of Food and Its Preparation in Ancient Times</ref> A Roman supper sometimes included shellfish prepared with pepper, cinnamon, and benzoin root.<ref>The Eclectic Review: N.S. V. 19 1823 Jan-Jun, University of Michigan Library (April 27, 2009)</ref> Benzoin root was also used in a recipe for seasoning goose liver.<ref>Remains, Historical & Literary, Connected with the Palatine Counties of Lancaster and Chester, Chetham Society</ref> Benzoin root is still used today in incense recipes.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.starbornalchemy.com/perfumeoil.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090212135128/http://starbornalchemy.com/perfumeoil.html |archive-date=2009-02-12 |title=Starborn Alchemy - Essential Oil Perfumes, Body Butters, Lip Balms}}</ref> Also the resin proper is procured near the root of the tree.<ref name="Herb Data New Zealand 1926">Herb Data New Zealand, Benzoinum, Monograph of the U.S.D. 1926, Edited by Ivor Hughes</ref> Resin procured from the tree during the first three years is referred to as head benzoin. That which is obtained during the next 7 or 8 years is known as the belly benzoin. The third type is called foot benzoin, and is obtained by splitting the tree and scraping the wood of the trunk and roots.<ref name="Herb Data New Zealand 1926"/> This latter source contains impurities. Rambam says that onycha was rubbed with bitter vetch to remove impurities.<ref name="Rambam on Maaser Sheni 2:4"/> The Talmud also appears to indicate that onycha came from an annual plant.<ref name="Kerithoth 6b"/> Benzoin gum is harvested annually,<ref name="Herb Data New Zealand 1926"/> and not being native to Palestine it is possible confusion slipped in identifying its annual yield with its life span. Different Styrax trees are often misidentified or referred to as a "bush."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.laspilitas.com/nature-of-california/plants/styrax-officinalis-californica |title = Styrax officinalis californica, Snowdrop Bush}}</ref> Onycha is said to have been soaked in wine to enhance its fragrance which was often done with resins used for incense.<ref name="ReferenceE"/>

The Hindustanis refer to benzoin as “lobanee” or “luban”. The Arabs refer to it as “luban” or “luban jawi”.<ref>{{cite book|title= Plant resins: chemistry, evolution, ecology, and ethnobotany|url= https://archive.org/details/plantresinschemi00lang_947|url-access= limited|author=Langenheim, Jean H.|publisher=Timber Press|year=2003|page=[https://archive.org/details/plantresinschemi00lang_947/page/n353 354]|isbn= 9780881925746}}</ref><ref>The plants and drugs of Sind: Being a systematic account, with descriptions of the indigenous flora and notices of the value and uses of their products in commerce, medicine, and the arts, by James A Murray</ref>

The book of Eccesiasticus (Sirach) 24:15 alludes to the sacred incense speaking of “a pleasant odour like the best myrrh, as galbanum, and onyx, and sweet storax, and as the fume of frankincense in the tabernacle.”<ref>{{cite web |url=http://theology101.org/bib/apo/sir024.htm#015 |title = Deuterocanonical Apocrypha: Sirach 24}}</ref> The storax of antiquity was styrax.<ref>Encyclopædia Britannica 1893:Incense of the Old Testament</ref> The writer refers to "onyx" as opposed to "onycha" while referencing styrax as part of the formula. Stacte may have been light myrrh treated with benzoin.<ref>Archaeology Along the Spice Route of Yemen by James A. Sauer and Jeffrey A. Blakely. Araby the blest: studies in Arabian archaeology, By Daniel T. Potts</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cookingwiththebible.com/reader/Default.aspx/GR3410-4252/lore/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071212194517/http://www.cookingwiththebible.com/reader/Default.aspx/GR3410-4252/lore/ |archive-date=2007-12-12 |title=Cooking with the Bible - HERBS AND SPICES}}</ref>
Onycha may have been labdanum.<ref name="Walker, Winifred 1979"/> Since myrrh was often mixed with labdanum,<ref>Stewart, David, Healing Oils of the Bible</ref><ref>Merriam-Webster Dictionary, Myrrh</ref> throughout many centuries benzoin and labdanum may have inadvertently switched places in the formula.<ref>Tucker, A.O., Frankincense and Myrrh – Economic botany, 1986</ref> The possibility exists that the onycha of Exodus 30 was labdanum while the onycha of the second Temple was benzoin, with both ingredients still remaining in both formulas.

Winifred Walker writes that the onycha referred to in Exodus 30 is labdanum<ref>Walker, Winifred, All the Plants of the Bible, pg.158</ref> but later in the same book states that there was also another onycha, which he also equates as a component of the holy incense, which may have been derived from benzoin.<ref>Walker, Winifred, All the Plants of the Bible, pg.241</ref>

'''Labdanum and benzoin mixed'''

Labdanum and benzoin were often mixed together. The reproduced scent of ambergris is predominantly a mix of labdanum and benzoin. Ambergris was used by the ancient Egyptians as an incense.<ref>Brady, George Stuart; Clauser, Henry R.; Vaccari, John A. (2002). Materials Handbook: An Encyclopedia for Managers, Technical Professionals, Purchasing and Production Managers, Technicians, and Supervisors. United States: McGraw-Hill Professional. p. 64. {{ISBN|9780071360760}}.</ref> For centuries, benzoin has been mixed with labdanum, particularly in the Middle East, as an incense to scent homes, places of worship, and as an air purifier.<ref name="historykb.com">[https://web.archive.org/web/20101227142400/http://www.historykb.com/Uwe/Forum.aspx/ancient-egypt/54/Kyphi-receipe-by-V-Loret "Kyphi receipe{{sic |nolink=yes}} by V. Loret"].</ref> This blend was used by the ancient Egyptians as an incense. Based on some of the latest research from the Edfu temple and a recent study
of ceramic dishes used in the preparation of kyphi, it appears that labdanum mixed with benzoin was an important part of the [[kyphi]] recipe.<ref name="historykb.com"/> It was also part of the formula written about by Nostradamus who said it made “the most supreme perfume, and the longest-lasting that can be made anywhere in the world” and that it acted as an air purifier against disease.<ref>[[Nostradamus]], ''Traité des fardemens et confitures'', Part 1 Chapter XI</ref> It is possible that onycha was this mix of labdanum and Styrax benzoin. Styrax (referred to as storax in antiquity) is mentioned alongside of onycha in Eccesiasticus 24:15 when alluding to the sacred incense. Either onycha and styrax were originally mixed together or styrax was treated with labdanum or by the time of the first temple period a fifth ingredient was added to the ketoret.<ref>Taylor's edition of Calmet's great dictionary of the Holy Bible, by [[Augustin Calmet]], [[Charles Taylor (engraver)|Charles Taylor]], Edward Wells</ref> Stacte may have been light myrrh treated with benzoin.{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}}

Again, the possibility exists that the onycha of Exodus 30 was labdanum, while the onycha of the second Temple was benzoin or even the operculum.{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}}

===Bdellium===
''[[Commiphora wightii]]'', syn. ''C. mukul'': Bdellium has been seriously considered as the ancient onycha. The tree, which grows in Arabia, produces a gum that was used in antiquity as an incense. It was one of the substances used in incense in ancient Egypt. As an incense it produces a sweet, spicy smell that some consider similar, although less bitter than, myrrh, combined with the scent of mushroom. The gum was often used as an adulterant of myrrh in the spice trade. The gum rolled into a small ball is known as hadrabolon. It is dry and shining having numerous white spots, like finger-nails in shape.<ref name="Natural History 12.19">Natural History 12.19</ref> Dioscorides said that bdellium was "the tear of an Arabian tree."<ref>"De Materia Medica," i. 80</ref><ref>Jewish Encyclopedia, Morris Jastrow Jr. and Immanuel Benzinger</ref> He describes bdellium as resembling a fingernail<ref>De materia medica, A, 67</ref> (which is the Greek meaning of onycha). Pliny says that bdellium " is shining and dry, and covered with numerous white spots resembling the fingernails."<ref name="Cooke">''Report by Dr. M. C. Cooke, on the gums, resins, oleo-resins, and resinous Products in the India Museum, or Produced in India'', by [[Mordecai Cubitt Cooke]], [[John Forbes Watson]]</ref><ref>Historia Naturalis</ref> This appears to be the same bdellium referred to by Damocritus, a medical writer, who was quoted by Saracenus in his Scholia in Dioscoridis, and the same bdellium referred to by Galen, as quoted by Salmasius in his Plinianae Exercitationes. Salmasius states that bdellium is the Arab Molochil (Mukul).<ref name="Cooke"/>

When used in sacred rites, bdellium was steeped in wine to increase its fragrance<ref name="Natural History 12.19"/> (Rambam says that shecheleth, or onycha, was steeped in wine to enhance its fragrance).<ref name="ReferenceE"/> The gum exudes from the cracks in the bark of the trunk near the root (Rashi refers to onycha, or shecheleth, as a kind of root). Bdellium is referred to in the early history of the Bible. Bdellium, like onyx, is the name both of an odoriferous gum and also of a gem or precious stone. "And the gold of that land is good: there is bdellium and the onyx stone." (Gen 2:12){{Citation needed|date=January 2021}}

===Gum tragacanth===
After [[gum tragacanth]] is harvested, it takes on the appearance of grotesque "fingernails." It had been used for thousands of years as an ingredient in incense, and has been seriously considered as a likely candidate for onycha.{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}}

===Cloves===
[[Clove]]s or "zipporen" in Hebrew, have been considered as a possibility. In contemporary Hebrew the word means "nails".{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}}

===Amber===
It was the opinion of K.G. Jacob that shecheleth was [[amber]].<ref>Encyclopaedia Biblica : a critical dictionary of the literary, political, and religious history, the archaeology, geography, and natural history of the Bible, Edited by T. K. Cheyne, M.A., D.D. and J. Sutherland Black M.A., LL.D.</ref>

===Cuttlefish bone===
[[Cuttlefish bone]] looks like large fingernails and can also be used in incense.{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}}

===Spikenard===
[[Spikenard]] is a well known aromatic herb that has been suggested in this context.{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}}