Editing Peru (section)

===Conquest and colonial period===
{{main|Spanish conquest of Peru|Viceroyalty of Peru}}
[[File:Luis Montero - The Funerals of Inca Atahualpa - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|upright=1.21|''Los funerales de Atahualpa'' (1867) by Luis Montero. [[Atahualpa]] was the last [[Sapa Inca]], executed by the Spaniards on 29 August 1533.]]
Atahualpa (or Atahuallpa), the last [[Sapa Inca]], became emperor when he defeated and executed his older half-brother [[Huáscar]] in a civil war sparked by the death of their father,<ref>{{Citation |last=Lavallé |first=Bernard |title=7 El fin de Atahualpa |date=2004 |work=Francisco Pizarro : Biografía de una conquista |pages=123–139 |url=https://books.openedition.org/ifea/936 |access-date=19 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240319053716/https://books.openedition.org/ifea/936 |archive-date=19 March 2024 |url-status=live |series=Travaux de l'IFEA |place=Lima |publisher=Institut français d’études andines |language=es |isbn=978-2-8218-2650-2}}</ref> Inca Huayna Capac. In December 1532, a party of ''[[Conquistador|conquistadors]]'' (supported by the [[Chanka|Chankas]], [[Huanca people|Huancas]], [[Cañari|Cañaris]] and [[Chachapoya culture|Chachapoyas]] as [[Indian auxiliaries]]) led by [[Francisco Pizarro]] defeated and captured the Inca Emperor Atahualpa in the [[Battle of Cajamarca]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Battle of Cajamarca {{!}} Summary {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/event/Battle-of-Cajamarca-1532 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210204140859/https://www.britannica.com/event/Battle-of-Cajamarca-1532 |archive-date=4 February 2021 |access-date=19 March 2024 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref> After years of preliminary exploration and military conflicts, it was the first step in a long campaign that took decades of fighting but ended in Spanish victory and colonization of the region known as the [[Viceroyalty of Peru]] with its capital at [[Lima]], which was then known as "La Ciudad de los Reyes" (The City of Kings). The conquest of Peru led to spin-off campaigns throughout the viceroyalty as well as expeditions towards the Amazon Basin as in the case of Spanish efforts to quell Amerindian resistance. The last Inca resistance was suppressed when the Spaniards annihilated the [[Neo-Inca State]] in [[Vilcabamba, Peru|Vilcabamba]] in 1572.

The Indigenous population dramatically collapsed overwhelmingly due to epidemic diseases introduced by the Spanish as well as exploitation and socio-economic change.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Lovell |first=W. George |year=1992 |title='Heavy Shadows and Black Night': Disease and Depopulation in Colonial Spanish America |journal=Annals of the Association of American Geographers |volume=82 |issue=3 |pages=426–443 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-8306.1992.tb01968.x |jstor=2563354}}</ref> Viceroy [[Francisco de Toledo]] reorganized the country in the 1570s with gold and silver mining as its main economic activity and Amerindian [[Mit'a|forced labor]] as its primary workforce. With the discovery of the great silver and gold lodes at [[Potosí]] (present-day Bolivia) and [[Huancavelica]], the viceroyalty flourished as an important provider of mineral resources. Peruvian [[bullion]] provided revenue for the Spanish Crown and fueled a complex trade network that extended as far as Europe and the Philippines. The commercial and population exchanges between Latin America and Asia undergone via the [[Manila Galleon|Manila Galleons]] transiting through Acapulco, had [[Callao]] at Peru as the furthest endpoint of the trade route in the Americas.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Schottenhammer |first=Angela |year=2019 |title=Connecting China with the Pacific World? |url=https://www.academia.edu/44625493 |url-status=live |journal=Orientierungen. Zeitschrift zur Kultur Asiens |page=144 |issn=0936-4099 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210527045556/https://www.academia.edu/44625493/Connecting_China_with_the_Pacific_World |archive-date=27 May 2021 |access-date=27 May 2021 |quote=The wreck excavation could prove that European style jewelry was being made in the Philippines. Some 56 intact storage jars were discovered. Investigations revealed that they had come from kilns in South China, Cochin China (Vietnam), and Siam (Thailand), and one was of Spanish design. The archaeology of the Nuestra Señora de la Concepción, consequently, also provides us with intriguing new insights into the trans-Pacific trade connection and the commodities involved. Each time a galleon arrived at Acapulco, a market, la feria, was organized. This attracted all kinds of people such as Indian peddlers, Mexican and Peruvian merchants, soldiers, the king's officials, and friars, as well as a few Chinese and some Filipinos. From Acapulco, the goods were transported into the hinterlands, into Mexico City, and various other places, including Peru. The Peruvian port at that time was Callao and the Ciudad de los Reyes, that is Lima, the capital of the Viceroyalty of Peru. Generally speaking, much of what was not sold (rezagos) directly in Acapulco was redirected towards Peru. Peruvian ships, mainly loaded with silver, mercury, cacao from Guayaquil, and Peruvian wines, sailed to ports along the Mexican and Guatemalan coasts, returning with Asian goods and leftover cargo from the galleon ships. Besides Callao and Guayaquil, Paita was also frequently a port of call.}}</ref> In relation to this, Don [[Sebastian Hurtado de Corcuera]], governor of Panama was also responsible for settling [[Zamboanga City]] in the Philippines by employing Peruvian soldiers and colonists.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Second book of the second part of the Conquests of the Filipinas Islands, and chronicle of the religious of our Father, St. Augustine |url=http://www.zamboanga.com/html/history_1634_moro_attacks.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210228083013/https://www.zamboanga.com/html/history_1634_moro_attacks.htm |archive-date=28 February 2021 |access-date=18 February 2021 |website=Zamboanga City History |quote=He (Governor Don Sebastían Hurtado de Corcuera) brought a great reenforcement of soldiers, many of them from Perú, as he made his voyage to Acapulco from that kingdom.}}</ref> [[History of slavery#Americas|African slaves]] were added to the labor population to expand the workforce. The expansion of a colonial administrative apparatus and bureaucracy paralleled the economic reorganization.

With the conquest started the spread of Christianity in South America; most people were forcefully converted to [[Catholic Church|Catholicism]], with Spanish clerics believing like Puritan divines of English colonies later that the Native Peoples "had been corrupted by the Devil, who was working "through them to frustrate" their foundations.<ref>Russell Bourne, ''Gods of War, Gods of Peace'' (New York: Harcourt Books, 2002), 7–9.</ref> It only took a generation to convert the population. They built churches in every city and replaced some of the Inca temples with churches, such as the [[Coricancha]] in the city of Cusco. The church employed the [[Inquisition]], making use of torture to ensure that newly converted Catholics did not stray to other religions or beliefs, and monastery schools, educating girls, especially of the Inca nobility and upper class, "until they were old enough either to profess [to become a nun] or to leave the monastery and assume the role ('estado') in the Christian society that their fathers planned to erect" in Peru.<ref>Kathryn Burns, ''Colonial Habits'' (Durham and London: Duke University Press, 1999), 15–40.</ref> Peruvian Catholicism follows the [[syncretism]] found in many Latin American countries, in which religious native rituals have been integrated with Christian celebrations.<ref name="discover-peru.org2" /> In this endeavor, the church came to play an important role in the [[acculturation]] of the Natives, drawing them into the cultural orbit of the Spanish settlers.

[[File:TupacAmaruII.jpg|thumb|210x210px|[[Túpac Amaru II]]]]
By the 18th century, declining silver production and economic diversification greatly diminished royal income. In response, the Crown enacted the [[Bourbon Reforms]], a series of [[Edict|edicts]] that increased taxes and partitioned the [[Viceroyalty]]. The new laws provoked [[Rebellion of Túpac Amaru II|Túpac Amaru II's rebellion]] and other revolts, all of which were suppressed. As a result of these and other changes, the Spaniards and their [[Creole peoples|creole]] successors came to monopolize control over the land, seizing many of the best lands abandoned by the massive native depopulation. However, the Spanish did not resist the [[Portuguese colonization of the Americas|Portuguese expansion of Brazil]] across the meridian. The [[Treaty of Tordesillas]] was rendered meaningless between 1580 and 1640 while [[Iberian Union|Spain controlled Portugal]]. The need to ease communication and trade with Spain led to the split of the viceroyalty and the creation of new viceroyalties of [[Viceroyalty of New Granada|New Granada]] and [[Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata|Rio de la Plata]] at the expense of the territories that formed the [[Viceroyalty of Peru]]; this reduced the power, prominence and importance of Lima as the viceroyal capital and shifted the lucrative [[Andes|Andean]] trade to [[Buenos Aires]] and [[Bogotá]], while the fall of the mining and textile production accelerated the progressive decay of the Viceroyalty of Peru.

Eventually, the viceroyalty would dissolve, as with much of the Spanish empire, when challenged by national independence movements at the beginning of the nineteenth century. These movements led to the formation of the majority of modern-day countries of South America in the territories that at one point or another had constituted the Viceroyalty of Peru.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Peru |url=http://countrystudies.us/peru/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161103011538/http://countrystudies.us/peru/ |archive-date=3 November 2016 |access-date=27 July 2014 |website=countrystudies.us}}</ref> The conquest and colony brought a mix of cultures and ethnicities that did not exist before the Spanish conquered the Peruvian territory. Even though many of the Inca traditions were lost or diluted, new customs, traditions and knowledge were added, creating a rich mixed Peruvian culture.<ref name="discover-peru.org2" /> Two of the most important Indigenous rebellions against the Spanish were that of [[Juan Santos Atahualpa]] in 1742, and Rebellion of [[Túpac Amaru II]] in 1780 around the highlands near Cuzco.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Túpac Amaru II |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Tupac-Amaru-II |access-date=10 July 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190603132731/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Tupac-Amaru-II |archive-date=3 June 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref>