Editing Pitta (section)

==Behaviour and ecology==
===Sociality and calls===

[[File:Pitta moluccensis - Kaeng Krachan.jpg|thumb|Blue-winged pitta (Pitta moluccensis), Kaeng Krachan, Thailand]]

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| title       = {{Center|The call of the blue-winged pitta}}
| description = {{center|Recorded in Phuket, Thailand}}
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Pittas are [[Diurnality|diurnal]], requiring light to find their often cryptic prey. They are nevertheless often found in darker areas and are highly secretive, though they will respond to imitations of their calls. They are generally found as single birds, even young birds not associating with their parents unless they are being fed. The only exception to their solitary lifestyle is small groups that have been observed forming during migration.<ref name = "HBW">{{cite journal | first = J. | last = Erritzoe|editor1-last=del Hoyo |editor1-first=Josep |editor2-last=Elliott |editor2-first=Andrew |editor3-last=Sargatal |editor3-first=Jordi |editor4-last=Christie |editor4-first=David A. |editor5-last=de Juana |editor5-first=Eduardo |year=2017 |title=Family Pittidae (Pittas) |journal=Handbook of the Birds of the World Alive |url=http://www.hbw.com/family/pittas-pittidae |publisher=Lynx Edicions |location=Barcelona | doi = 10.2173/bow.pittid1.01| s2cid = 241970288|access-date=11 July 2017 |url-access=subscription}}</ref>

The pittas are strongly [[territory (animal)|territorial]], with territories varying in size from {{convert|3000|m2|abbr=on}} in the African pitta to {{convert|10000|m2|abbr=on}} in the rainbow pitta. They have also been found to be highly aggressive in captivity, attacking other species and even their own; such behaviour has not been observed in the wild.{{sfn|Erritzoe|Erritzoe|1998|p=22}} Pittas will perform territory-defence displays on the edges of their territories; fights between rivals have only been recorded once. One such territorial display is given by the rainbow pitta, which holds its legs straight and bows to a rival on the edge of its territory, while making a purring call. Displays like this are paired with calls made out of sight of potential rivals;<ref name="Zimmerman 1995">{{cite journal |last1= Zimmerman |first1=Udo|title=Displays and postures of the Rainbow Pitta and other Australian Pittas|journal=Australian Bird Watcher |date=1995|volume=16|issue=4|pages=161–164|url= https://www.birdlife.org.au/afo/index.php/afo/article/view/308|url-access=subscription}}</ref> these territorial calls are frequent and can account for up to 12% of a bird's daylight activity.<ref name="HANZAB Rainbow">{{cite book|editor1-last=Higgins|editor1-first=P.J. |editor2-last=Peter|editor2-first=J.M.|editor3-last=Steele|editor3-first=W.K.|title=Handbook of Australian, New Zealand and Antarctic Birds. Volume 5: Tyrant-flycatchers to Chats|date=2001| pages = 117–125 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Melbourne|isbn=978-0-19-553258-6}}</ref> Migratory species will defend non-breeding feeding territories as well as their breeding ones.<ref name = "HBW"/>

The [[bird vocalization|vocalisations]] of pittas are best described as calls, as they are generally short, mono or disyllabic, and often fluting or whirring. They are made by both sexes and throughout the year.<ref name = "HBW"/> One species, the black-and-crimson pitta, was also described making a mechanical noise (sonation) in 2013. The sonation, a clapping sound, was made in flight and is hypothesised to be made by the wings.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Pegan |first1=Teresa |last2=Hruska |first2=Jack |last3=M. Hite |first3=Justin |title=A newly described call and mechanical noise produced by the Black-and-crimson Pitta ''Pitta ussheri'' |journal=Forktail |date=2013 |volume=29 |pages=160–162 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/283476740}}</ref>

===Diet and feeding===
[[File:Noisy Pitta anvil.jpg|upright|thumb|alt= Small collection of broken snail shells next to large root on leafy forest floor|The anvil of a [[noisy pitta]], used to smash snails against to remove the shells]]

[[Earthworm]]s form the major part of the diet of pittas, followed by snails. Earthworms can become seasonally unavailable in dry conditions when the worms move deeper into the soil, and pittas also take a wide range of other invertebrate prey, including many insects groups such as [[termite]]s, [[ant]]s, [[beetle]]s, [[Hemiptera|true bugs]], and [[butterfly|lepidopterans]]. [[Freshwater crab]]s, [[centipede]]s, [[millipede]]s, and [[spider]]s are also taken.<ref name = "HBW"/> Some species, such as the fairy pitta and rainbow pitta, have been recorded feeding on small vertebrate prey. This including [[skink]]s, [[frog]]s, [[snakes]] and, in the case of the fairy pitta, [[shrew]]s.<ref name = "HBW"/><ref name=fairybreed/> There are also records of some pittas taking plant food, such as the ''[[Carpentaria]]'' palm fruits or [[maize]] seeds.<ref name = "HBW"/>

Pittas feed in a [[true thrush|thrush-like]] fashion, moving aside leaves with a sweeping motion of the [[beak|bill]]. They have also been observed to probe the moist soil with their bills to locate earthworms. They have a keen sense of smell, and it has been suggested that they are able to locate earthworms this way. This suggestion was supported by a study which found that the Indian pitta has the largest [[olfactory bulb]] of 25 passerines examined.<ref name = "HBW"/><ref name="Bang">{{cite journal|last=Bang|first=B.G.|author2=Stanley Cobb |year=1968|title=The size of the olfactory bulb in 108 species of birds|journal=The Auk|volume=85|issue=1|pages=55–61|doi=10.2307/4083624|jstor=4083624|s2cid=87392351}}</ref> Eight species have been recorded using stones as anvils on which to smash open snails to eat,<ref name = "HBW"/> and the rainbow pitta has been observed using the root of a tree to do so.<ref>{{cite journal |doi= 10.1071/MU98007E |last=Woinarski|first=J.C.W. |author2=A. Fisher |author3=K. Brennan |author4=I. Morris |author5=R.C. Willan |author6=R. Chatto |year=1998|title=The Chestnut Rail ''Eulabeornis castaneoventris'' on the Wessel and English Company Islands: Notes on unusual habitat and use of anvils|journal=Emu|volume=98|issue=1|pages=74–78 |bibcode=1998EmuAO..98...74W }}</ref>

===Breeding===
Like most birds, pittas are [[monogamy in animals|monogamous]] breeders, and defend breeding territories. Most species are seasonal breeders, timing their breeding to occur at the onset of the [[rainy season]].<ref name = "HBW"/><ref name="noisy pitta"/> An exception to this is the superb pitta, which breeds almost year-round, as the island of Manus on which it breeds remains wet all year. The courtship behaviours of the family are poorly known, but the elaborate dance of the African pitta includes jumping into the air with a puffed-out breast and parachuting back down to the perch.<ref name = "HBW"/>

[[File:Green-breasted Pitta at nest - Kibale Uganda 06 4667 (16925037065).jpg|thumb|left|alt= The head of a bird is visible in an opening of a domed nest constructed of leaves and twigs|An incubating [[green-breasted pitta]] in its domed nest]]

Pittas build a rudimentary [[bird nest|nest]] that is a dome with a side entrance. The structure of the nest is consistent across the whole family. The nest is as large as a [[Rugby football|rugby]] ball, and is usually well-camouflaged amongst vines or vegetation of some kind. The nest's appearance is also difficult to distinguish from a heap of leaves pushed together by the wind;<ref name = "HBW"/> a few species create a "doormat" of sticks (sometimes decorated with mammal dung<ref name="Zimmerman 2004">{{cite journal|last1=Zimmerman|first1=Udo|last2=Noske|first2=Richard|title=Why do Rainbow Pittas ''Pitta iris'' place wallaby dung at the entrance to their nests?|journal=Australian Field Ornithology |date=2004 |volume=21 |issue=4 |pages=163–165 |url-access=subscription|url=http://www.birdlife.org.au/afo/index.php/afo/article/view/81}}</ref>) by the entrance. The nests can either be placed on the ground or in trees. Some species always nest in trees, like both African species, others nest only on the ground, and others show considerable variation. Both sexes help to build the nest, but the male does most of the work. It takes around two to eight days to build a new nest; this probably varies depending on the experience of the birds involved. A new nest is constructed for each nesting attempt,<ref name = "HBW"/> and work on building a nest for a second brood may start while the chicks from the first brood are still being fed.<ref name="Zimmerman"/>

The [[avian clutch size|clutch size]] varies by species. Typically three to five eggs are laid, but two is typical for the garnet pitta, whereas six is more common for the blue-winged pitta and the Indian pitta.<ref name = "HBW"/> It is thought that species with higher levels of predation tend to have smaller clutches, as smaller clutches involve fewer provisioning trips that might alert a predator to the presence of a nest, and smaller clutches are easier to replace if lost.<ref name="Zimmerman">{{cite journal|last1=Zimmermann|first1=Udo M.|last2=Noske|first2=Richard A.|title=Breeding biology of the Rainbow Pitta, ''Pitta iris'', a species endemic to Australian monsoon-tropical rainforests|journal=Emu|date=2003|volume=103| issue=3 |pages=245–254 |doi=10.1071/MU02005 |bibcode=2003EmuAO.103..245Z |s2cid=84067407|url= https://www.researchgate.net/publication/248900314}}</ref> Clutch size may vary within a species depending on latitude. A study of noisy pittas found that birds in the tropics had smaller clutch sizes than those in more temperate environments.<ref name="noisy pitta">{{cite journal |last=Woodall|first=P.F.|title=Breeding season and clutch size of the Noisy Pitta ''Pitta versicolor'' in tropical and subtropical Australia |journal=Emu |year=1994 |volume=94 |issue=4 |pages=273–277 |doi=10.1071/MU9940273|bibcode=1994EmuAO..94..273W }}</ref> The eggs of pittas are slightly pointed at one end, and generally smooth (the deeply pitted eggs of the superb pitta being the exception to this). The size of eggs varies by species, smaller-sized species laying smaller eggs. There is also some variation in egg size within a species in species with large ranges. For example, the eggs of noisy pittas are smaller closer to the tropics.<ref name = "HBW"/> Eggs are typically white or creamy, and usually slightly glossy.{{sfn|Erritzoe|Erritzoe|1998|p=26}}

[[File:Indian pitta (Pitta brachyura) Photograph by Shantanu Kuveskar.jpg|thumb|alt= A buff and green bird stands on a branch|The [[Indian pitta]] has a clutch size of six or more eggs]]

Both parents [[Avian incubation|incubate]] the clutch, the period between laying and hatching being between 14 and 18 days (14 to 16 being more typical). The chicks usually hatch asynchronously, over several days, but in some species the hatching is synchronous. On hatching the [[Gurney's pitta]] parents are reported to consume the eggshells. This behaviour ensures that the calcium used to create the eggs is not lost. It is unknown if other species do this, but it is a common behaviour among birds. As with the incubation, both parents are involved in rearing the chicks. The chicks of pittas are entirely [[altricial]], hatching both naked and blind, and dependent upon their parents for warmth, food and nest sanitation. Young chicks are brooded continuously, the female brooding alone in some species and sharing responsibilities with the male in others.<ref name="Gulson-Castillo">{{cite journal |last1=Gulson-Castillo |first1=Eric R. |last2=Dreelin |first2=R. Andrew |last3=Fernandez-Duque |first3=Facundo |last4=Greig |first4=Emma I. |last5=Hite |first5=Justin M. |last6=Orzechowski |first6=Sophia C. |last7=Smith |first7=Lauren K. |last8=Wallace |first8=Rachel T. |last9=Winkler |first9=David W. |title=Breeding biology during the nestling period at a Black-crowned Pitta ''Erythropitta ussheri'' nest |journal=Bulletin of the British Ornithologists' Club |date=2017 |volume=137 |issue=3 |pages=173–194 |doi=10.25226/bboc.v137i3.2017.a2 |issn=0007-1595|doi-access=free }}</ref> The males and females make regular feeding trips to the chicks;<ref name = "HBW"/> one study of Gurney's pittas found a pair made 2300 feeding visits to the nest, traveling an estimated {{convert|460|km|mi|abbr=on}} over the nestling stage.{{sfn|Erritzoe|Erritzoe|1998|p=27}} Earthworms are important food items for many species, and the dominant item in the nestling diet of some. 73% of the parental visits of fairy pittas, 63% of rainbow pitta's, up to 79% of Gurney's pitta's visits involved bringing earthworms. Parents can and do carry more than one item in their bills during visits; in a study of breeding fairy pittas, as many as six items were observed being brought in a single visit; less than four was more typical.<ref name=fairybreed>{{cite journal|last=Lin|first=Ruey-Shing |author2=Yao, Cheng-Te |author3=Pei-Fen Lee|title=The diet of Fairy Pitta ''Pitta nympha'' nestlings in Taiwan as revealed by videotaping |journal=Zoological Studies |year=2007| volume=46| issue=3| pages=355–361 |url=http://ntur.lib.ntu.edu.tw/bitstream/246246/161659/1/39.pdf}}</ref> When the chicks are small, prey may be broken up before being fed to the chicks,<ref name = "HBW"/> and larger prey items like skinks and snakes are only fed to chicks who are old enough to manage them.<ref name=fairybreed/>