Editing Political correctness (section)

===1980s and 1990s===
[[Allan Bloom]]'s ''[[The Closing of the American Mind]]'', a book first published in 1987,<ref name=Bloom/> heralded a debate about "political correctness" in American higher education in the 1980s and 1990s.<ref name="Schultz-1993a"/><ref name=Robinson2000/><ref name=Kamiya>{{cite journal|last1=Kamiya|first1=Gary|title=Civilization & Its Discontents|journal=[[San Francisco Chronicle Magazine]]|date=22 January 1995|url=http://www.sfgate.com/magazine/article/Civilization-Its-Discontents-3152155.php|access-date=16 November 2015|archive-date=28 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210228042025/https://www.sfgate.com/magazine/article/Civilization-Its-Discontents-3152155.php|url-status=live}}</ref> Professor of English literary and cultural studies at [[Carnegie Mellon University|CMU]] Jeffrey J. Williams wrote that the "assault on ... political correctness that simmered through the Reagan years, gained bestsellerdom with Bloom's ''Closing of the American Mind''".<ref name=Williams>{{cite book|last1=Williams|first1=Jeffrey|title=PC Wars: Politics and Theory in the Academy|date=2013|publisher=[[Routledge]]|isbn=978-1136656231|page=11|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VaVlAgAAQBAJ|access-date=28 October 2015|archive-date=10 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211010142522/https://books.google.com/books?id=VaVlAgAAQBAJ|url-status=live}}</ref> According to Z.F. Gamson, Bloom's book "attacked the faculty for 'political correctness'".<ref name=Gamson>{{cite journal |last1= Gamson|first1=Z.F.|title=The Stratification of the Academy|journal= Social Text|date= 1997|volume=51|issue=51|pages=67–73|doi=10.2307/466647|jstor=466647}}</ref> Prof. of Social Work at [[California State University|CSU]] Tony Platt says the "campaign against 'political correctness'" was launched by Bloom's book in 1987.<ref name=Platt>{{cite journal|last1=Platt|first1=Tony|title=Desegregating Multiculturalism: Problems in the Theory and Pedagogy of Diversity Education|journal=Pedagogies for Social Change|via=[[Social Justice (journal)|Social Justice]]|volume=29|issue=4 (90)|url=http://www.socialjusticejournal.org/archive/90_29_4/90_04Platt.pdf|access-date=28 October 2015|archive-date=7 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211007175758/http://www.socialjusticejournal.org/archive/90_29_4/90_04Platt.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>

An October 1990 ''[[New York Times]]'' article by [[Richard Bernstein (journalist)|Richard Bernstein]] is credited with popularizing the term.<ref name=Berman1992/><ref name=Smith1999/><ref name=Schwartz/><ref name=Crossroads>{{cite book|editor-last1=Valdes|editor-first1=Francisco|editor-last2=Culp|editor-first2=Jerome McCristal|editor-last3=Harris|editor-first3=Angela P.|title=Crossroads, directions, and a new critical race theory|date=2002|publisher=[[Temple University Press]]|location=Philadelphia|isbn=978-1566399302|pages=59, 65|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dCedxQu542UC|access-date=21 October 2015|archive-date=30 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200730022119/https://books.google.com/books?id=dCedxQu542UC|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Browne">Browne, Anthony (2006). "[https://www.civitas.org.uk/archive/pubs/Browne_cs47.php The Retreat of Reason: Political Correctness and the Corruption of Public Debate in Modern Britain] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140503050240/http://www.civitas.org.uk/pubs/Browne_cs47.php|date=3 May 2014}}". Civitas. {{ISBN|1903386500}}.</ref> At this time, the term was mainly being used within academia: "Across the country the term p.c., as it is commonly abbreviated, is being heard more and more in debates over what should be taught at the universities."<ref name=Bernstein/> [[LexisNexis|Nexis]] citations in "arcnews/curnews" reveal only seventy total citations in articles to "political correctness" for 1990; but one year later, Nexis records 1,532 citations, with a steady increase to more than 7,000 citations by 1994.<ref name=Crossroads/><ref name=Cho>{{cite journal|last1=Cho|first1=Sumi|title=Essential Politics|journal=[[Harvard Law Review]]|date=1997 |volume= 433}}</ref> In May 1991, ''The New York Times'' had a follow-up article, according to which the term was increasingly being used in a wider public arena:

{{blockquote|What has come to be called "political correctness", a term that began to gain currency at the start of the academic year last fall, has spread in recent months and has become the focus of an angry national debate, mainly on campuses, but also in the larger arenas of American life.|Robert D. McFadden, "Political Correctness: New Bias Test?", 1991<ref name=McFadden1991 />}}

The previously obscure far-left term became common currency in the lexicon of the conservative social and political challenges against [[progressive education|progressive teaching methods]] and curriculum changes in the secondary schools and universities of the U.S.<ref name="Charles-Wartella">{{cite journal | title=Media Coverage of the "Political Correctness" Debate |last1=Whitney |first1=D. Charles |last2=Wartella |first2=Ellen |name-list-style=amp | journal=[[Journal of Communication]] | year=1992 | volume=42 | issue=2 |pages=83 | doi = 10.1111/j.1460-2466.1992.tb00780.x }}</ref><ref>{{harvp|D'Souza|1991}}, {{harvp|Berman|1992}}, {{harvp|Schultz|1993}}, {{harvp|Messer-Davidow|1995}}, {{harvp|Scatamburlo|1998}}</ref> Policies, behavior, and speech codes that the speaker or the writer regarded as being the imposition of a liberal orthodoxy, were described and criticized as "politically correct".<ref name="Wilson"/> In May 1991, at a commencement ceremony for a graduating class of the University of Michigan, then U.S. President [[George H. W. Bush]] used the term in his speech: "The notion of political correctness has ignited controversy across the land. And although the movement arises from the laudable desire to sweep away the debris of racism and sexism and hatred, it replaces old prejudice with new ones. It declares certain topics off-limits, certain expression off-limits, even certain gestures off-limits."<ref>[[George H. W. Bush]], at the [[University of Michigan]] (4 May 1991), [http://bushlibrary.tamu.edu/research/papers/1991/91050401.html Remarks at the University of Michigan Commencement Ceremony in Ann Arbor] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040516105827/http://bushlibrary.tamu.edu/research/papers/1991/91050401.html |date=16 May 2004 }}, 4 May 1991. [[George Bush Presidential Library]].</ref><ref>
{{cite book|last=Aufderheide|first=Patricia|title=Beyond PC: Toward a Politics of Understanding|date=1992|publisher=[[Graywolf Press]]|location=Saint Paul, Minn.|isbn=978-1555971649|page=[https://archive.org/details/beyondpctowardpo00aufd/page/227 227]|url=https://archive.org/details/beyondpctowardpo00aufd/page/227}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Meaghan|first1=Morris|title=New Keywords a Revised Vocabulary of Culture and Society.|date=2013|publisher=[[Wiley (publisher)|Wiley]]|location=[[Hoboken, New Jersey|Hoboken]]|isbn=978-1118725412|url=http://www.springerin.at/dyn/heft_text.php?textid=1599&lang=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151118005632/http://www.springerin.at/dyn/heft_text.php?textid=1599&lang=en|archive-date=18 November 2015}}</ref>

After 1991, its use as a pejorative phrase became widespread amongst conservatives in the US.<ref name="Charles-Wartella"/> It became a key term encapsulating conservative concerns about the left in cultural and political debates extending beyond academia. Two articles on the topic in late 1990 in ''[[Forbes]]'' and ''[[Newsweek]]'' both used the term "[[thought police]]" in their headlines, exemplifying the tone of the new usage, but it was Dinesh D'Souza's ''Illiberal Education: The Politics of Race and Sex on Campus'' (1991) which "captured the press's imagination".<ref name="Charles-Wartella"/> These trends were at least in part a response to multiculturalism and the rise of [[identity politics]], with movements such as feminism, gay rights movements and ethnic minority movements. That response received funding from conservative foundations and think tanks such as the [[John M. Olin Foundation]], which funded several books such as D'Souza's.<ref name="Schultz-1993a"/><ref name="Wilson">Wilson, John. 1995. ''[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780822317135 The Myth of Political Correctness: The Conservative Attack on High Education].'' Durham, North Carolina: [[Duke University Press]]. p. 26.</ref>

[[Herbert Kohl (educator)|Herbert Kohl]], in 1992, commented that a number of [[neoconservatism|neoconservatives]] who promoted the use of the term "politically correct" in the early 1990s were former [[Communist Party USA|Communist Party]] members, and, as a result, familiar with the [[Marxist]] use of the phrase. He argued that in doing so, they intended "to insinuate that egalitarian democratic ideas are actually authoritarian, orthodox, and Communist-influenced, when they oppose the right of people to be racist, sexist, and homophobic".<ref name="Kohl"/>

During the 1990s, conservative and [[right-wing]] politicians, think tanks, and speakers adopted the phrase as a pejorative descriptor of their ideological enemies, especially in the context of the [[culture wars]] about [[American English|language]] and the content of public-school curricula. [[Roger Kimball]], in ''Tenured Radicals'', endorsed [[Frederick Crews]]'s view that PC is best described as "Left Eclecticism", a term defined by Kimball as "any of a wide variety of anti-establishment modes of thought from structuralism and poststructuralism, deconstruction, and Lacanian analyst to feminist, homosexual, black, and other patently political forms of criticism".<ref name=Kimball/><ref name=Williams/>

Liberal commentators have argued that the conservatives and reactionaries who used the term did so in an effort to divert political discussion away from the substantive matters of resolving societal discrimination,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Lauter |first=Paul |date=1993 |title='Political Correctness' and the Attack on American Colleges |journal=The Radical Teacher |issue=44 |pages=34–40 |jstor=20709784 |issn=0191-4847}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Axtell |first=James |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ca6-q60ig5kC |title=The Pleasures of Academe: A Celebration & Defense of Higher Education |date=1998-01-01 |publisher=U of Nebraska Press |isbn=978-0-8032-1049-3 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Soldiers of Misfortune: The New Right's Culture War and the Politics of Political Correctness |url=https://archive.org/details/soldiersofmisfor0000scat |url-access=registration |first=Valerie L. |last=Scatamburlo |date=1998 |location=New York|publisher=Peter Lang|isbn=9780820430126 }}</ref> such as [[Racism|racial]], [[social class]], [[gender]], and legal inequality, against people whom conservatives do not consider part of the social mainstream.<ref name="Schultz-1993a" /><ref name="Messer–Davidow">{{cite encyclopedia |last=Messer-Davidow |first=E. |date=1995 |title=Manufacturing the Attack on Liberalized Higher Education: The Humanities and Society in the 1990s |editor-first1=C.  |editor-last1=Newfield |editor-first2=R. |editor-last2=Strickland |encyclopedia=After Political Correctness: The Humanities and Society in the 1990s |pages=38–78 |publisher=Westview}}
</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=The Culture of Fear: Why Americans Are Afraid of the Wrong Things: Crime, Drugs, Minorities, Teen Moms, Killer Kids, Mutant Microbes, Plane Crashes, Road Rage, & So Much More |first=Barry |last=Glassner |date=5 January 2010 }}</ref> [[Jan Narveson]] wrote that "that phrase was born to live between scare-quotes: it suggests that the operative considerations in the area so called are ''merely'' political, steamrolling the genuine reasons of principle for which we ought to be acting...".<ref name=Friedman/> Commenting in 2001, one such British journalist,<ref name="Tomlinson, Race And Education: Policy And Politics In Britain, p. 161.">{{cite book|last1=Tomlinson|first1=Sally|title=Race and education: policy and politics in Britain|date=2008|publisher=[[Open University Press]]|location=Maidenhead [u.a]|isbn=978-0335223077|page=161|edition=[Online-Ausg.].|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-0jqaa-73mgC&pg=PA161|access-date=5 October 2015|archive-date=30 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200730112845/https://books.google.com/books?id=-0jqaa-73mgC&pg=PA161|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Paying Our High Public Officials: Evaluating the Political Justifications of Top Wages in the Public Sector, p. 119">{{cite book|last1=Dekker|first1=Teun J.|title=Paying Our High Public Officials: Evaluating the Political Justifications of Top Wages in the Public Sector|date=2013|publisher=[[Routledge]]|series=Research in Public Administration and Public Policy|isbn=978-1135131265|page=119|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bx9h0XuYSlUC&pg=PA119|access-date=16 October 2015|archive-date=10 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211010134734/https://books.google.com/books?id=bx9h0XuYSlUC&pg=PA119|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Polly Toynbee]], said "the phrase is an empty, right-wing smear, designed only to elevate its user",<ref>[[Polly Toynbee|Toynbee, Polly]]. [http://society.guardian.co.uk/regeneration/comment/0,7941,617436,00.html "Religion Must be Removed from all Functions of State"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070811125942/http://society.guardian.co.uk/regeneration/comment/0,7941,617436,00.html |date=11 August 2007 }}, ''[[The Guardian]]'', 12 December 2001 – Accessed 6 February 2007.</ref> and in 2010 she wrote "the phrase 'political correctness' was born as a coded cover for all who still want to say ''[[Paki (slur)|Paki]]'', ''[[Spastic (word)|spastic]]'', or ''[[queer]]''".<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2009/apr/28/toynbee-equality-bill-welfare|work=[[The Guardian]]|location=London|title=This Bold Equality Push is just what We Needed. In 1997|first=Polly|last=Toynbee|author-link=Polly Toynbee|date=28 April 2009|access-date=22 May 2010|archive-date=5 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211105201608/https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2009/apr/28/toynbee-equality-bill-welfare|url-status=live}}</ref> Another British journalist, [[Will Hutton]],<ref>{{cite book|last1=Albrow|first1=Martin|title=The global age state and society beyond modernity|date=1997|publisher=[[Stanford University Press]]|location=Stanford, Calif.|isbn=978-0804728706|pages=215|edition=1st|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZwmdxMMjOd4C&pg=PA215|access-date=22 October 2015|archive-date=29 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200729144344/https://books.google.com/books?id=ZwmdxMMjOd4C&pg=PA215|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=The Economist: Will Hutton, p. 81|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tbtIAAAAYAAJ|newspaper=[[The Economist]]|publisher=[[Economist Newspaper Limited]]|date=2002|access-date=22 October 2015|archive-date=10 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211010141432/https://books.google.com/books?id=tbtIAAAAYAAJ|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Gyuris|first1=Ferenc|title=The Political Discourse of Spatial Disparities Geographical Inequalities Between Science and Propaganda|date=2014|publisher=[[Springer International Publishing]]|location=Cham|isbn=978-3319015088|pages=68|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BzG8BAAAQBAJ&pg=PA68|access-date=22 October 2015|archive-date=20 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200920144856/https://books.google.com/books?id=BzG8BAAAQBAJ&pg=PA68|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Hutton|first1=Will|author-link=Will Hutton|title=How Good We Can Be: Ending the Mercenary Society and Building a Great Country|date=2015|isbn=978-1408705322|publisher=[[Hachette UK]]|page=80|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=01fXBAAAQBAJ&pg=PT80|access-date=22 October 2015|archive-date=19 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200919151104/https://books.google.com/books?id=01fXBAAAQBAJ&pg=PT80|url-status=live}}</ref> wrote in 2001:<ref>[[Will Hutton|Hutton, Will]]. [http://observer.guardian.co.uk/race/story/0,,619644,00.html "Words really are important, Mr Blunkett" ] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080131211145/http://observer.guardian.co.uk/race/story/0,,619644,00.html |date=31 January 2008 }} ''[[The Observer]]'', Sunday 16 December 2001 – Accessed 6 February 2007.</ref>

{{blockquote|Political correctness is one of the brilliant tools that the American Right developed in the mid–1980s, as part of its demolition of American liberalism.... What the sharpest thinkers on the American Right saw quickly was that by declaring war on the cultural manifestations of liberalism – by levelling the charge of "political correctness" against its exponents – they could discredit the whole political project.|[[Will Hutton]], "Words Really are Important, Mr Blunkett", 2001}}

[[Glenn Loury]] wrote in 1994 that to address the subject of "political correctness" when power and authority within the academic community is being contested by parties on either side of that issue, is to invite scrutiny of one's arguments by would-be "friends" and "enemies". Combatants from the left and the right will try to assess whether a writer is "for them" or "against them".<ref name=Loury>{{cite journal|url= http://www.econ.brown.edu/fac/Glenn_Loury/louryhomepage/papers/Loury_Political_Correctness.pdf|last1=Loury|first1=G. C.|author-link=Glenn Loury|title=Self-Censorship in Public Discourse: A Theory of "Political Correctness" and Related Phenomena|journal=[[Rationality and Society]]|date=1 October 1994|volume=6|issue=4|pages=428–61|doi= 10.1177/1043463194006004002|s2cid=143057168|access-date=28 October 2015|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20151123003439/http://www.econ.brown.edu/fac/Glenn_Loury/louryhomepage/papers/Loury_Political_Correctness.pdf|archive-date=23 November 2015}}</ref> Geoffrey Hughes suggested that debate over political correctness concerns whether changing language actually solves political and social problems, with critics viewing it less about solving problems than imposing censorship, intellectual intimidation and demonstrating the moral purity of those who practice it. Hughes also argues that political correctness tends to be pushed by a minority rather than an organic form of language change.<ref>{{cite book|last=Hughes|first=Geoffrey|year=2015|title=An Encyclopedia of Swearing: The Social History of Oaths, Profanity, Foul Language, and Ethnic Slurs in the English-Speaking World|publisher=Routledge|pages=348–349}}</ref>