Editing Procopius (section)

==Writings==
[[File:Meister von San Vitale in Ravenna.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Emperor Justinian]]

The writings of Procopius are the primary source of information for the rule of the emperor [[Justinian I|Justinian{{nbsp}}I]]. Procopius was the author of a history in eight books on the wars prosecuted by Justinian, a [[panegyric]] on the emperor's public works projects throughout the empire, and a book known as the ''Secret History'' that claims to report the scandals that Procopius could not include in his officially sanctioned history for fear of angering the emperor, his wife, Belisarius, and the general's wife. Consequently, publication was delayed until all of them were dead to avoid retaliation.
{{anchor|History of the Wars|The Wars of Justinian|The Wars|Procopius's Wars|Procopius' Wars|De Bellis}}

===''History of the Wars''===
Procopius's ''Wars'' or ''History of the Wars'' ({{langx|grc|Ὑπὲρ τῶν Πολέμων Λόγοι}}, ''Hypèr tōn Polémon Lógoi'', "Words on the Wars"; {{langx|la|De Bellis}}, "On the Wars") is his most important work, although less well known than the ''Secret History''.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://data.perseus.org/citations/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg4029.tlg001.perseus-grc1:1.1
 |title=Procopius, de Bellis. H.B. (Henry Bronson) Dewing, Ed. [First section:] Procop. Pers. 1.1 |last=Procopius |date=1914 |website=Perseus Digital Library |access-date=18 October 2023 |quote=[Opening line in Greek] Προκόπιος Καισαρεὺς τοὺς πολέμους ξυνέγραψεν οὓς Ἰουστινιανὸς ὁ Ῥωμαίων βασιλεὺς πρὸς βαρβάρους διήνεγκε τούς τε ἑῴους καὶ ἑσπερίους,... Translation: Procopius from Caesarea wrote the history of the wars of Roman Emperor Justinianus against the barbarians of the East and of the West..}}. Greek text edition by Henry Bronson Dewing, 1914.</ref> The first seven books seem to have been largely completed by 545 and may have been published as a set. They were, however, updated to mid-century before publication, with the latest mentioned event occurring in early 551. The eighth and final book brought the history to 553.

{{anchor|Persian War|De Bello Persico}}
The first two books{{mdash}}often known as ''The Persian War'' ({{langx|la|De Bello Persico}}){{mdash}}deal with the conflict between the Romans and [[Sassanid Persia]] in [[Mesopotamia]], [[Syria (region)|Syria]], [[Armenia (region)|Armenia]], [[Lazica]], and  [[Kingdom of Iberia (antiquity)|Iberia]] (present-day [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]]).{{sfn|Börm|2007}} It details the campaigns of the Sassanid shah [[Kavadh I|Kavadh{{nbsp}}I]], the 532  [[Nika riots|'Nika' revolt]], the war by Kavadh's successor [[Khosrau I|Khosrau{{nbsp}}I]] in 540, his destruction of [[Antioch on the Orontes|Antioch]] and deportation of its inhabitants to Mesopotamia, and the [[Plague of Justinian|great plague]] that devastated the empire from 542. The ''Persian War'' also covers the early career of Procopius's patron [[Belisarius]] in some detail.

{{anchor|Vandal War|Vandalic War|De Bello Vandalico}}
The ''Wars''’ next two books{{mdash}}known as ''The Vandal War'' or ''Vandalic War'' ({{langx|la| De Bello Vandalico}}){{mdash}}cover Belisarius's [[Vandalic War|successful campaign]] against the [[Vandal Kingdom|Vandal kingdom]] that had occupied Rome's provinces in [[northwest Africa]] for the last century.

{{anchor|Gothic War|De Bello Gothico}}
The final four books{{mdash}}known as ''The Gothic War'' ({{langx |la|De Bello Gothico}}){{mdash}}cover the [[Gothic War (535–554)|Italian campaigns]] by Belisarius and others against [[Ostrogothic Kingdom|the Ostrogoths]]. Procopius includes accounts of the [[Siege of Naples (536)|1st]] and [[Siege of Naples (542–43)|2nd sieges of Naples]] and the [[Siege of Rome (537–538)|1st]], [[Sack of Rome (546)|2nd]], and [[Siege of Rome (549–550)|3rd sieges of Rome]]. He also includes an account of the rise of the [[Franks]] (see ''[[Arborychoi]]''). The last book describes the [[Eunuch (court official)|eunuch]] [[Narses]]'s successful conclusion of the Italian campaign and includes some coverage of campaigns along the empire's eastern borders as well.

The War histories contain various longer excursions on different topics. These serve both literary and thematic purposes by providing the necessary background information as well as contextualising the acts of war described on different levels.{{sfn|Riemenschneider|2024}}{{sfn|Ziebuhr|2024}} The ''Wars'' proved influential on later Byzantine historiography.{{sfn|Cresci|2001}} In the 570s  [[Agathias of Myrina|Agathias]] wrote ''Histories'', a continuation of Procopius's work in a similar style.
{{anchor|Secret History|Historia Arcana|Anecdota| Anecdotes}}

===''Secret History''===
[[File:Meister von San Vitale in Ravenna 013.jpg|thumb|Belisarius may be this bearded figure on the right of Emperor [[Justinian I]] in the mosaic in the [[Basilica of San Vitale|Church of San Vitale]], [[Ravenna]], which celebrates the reconquest of Italy by the [[Byzantine army|Roman army]] under the skillful leadership of Belisarius.]]
Procopius's now famous ''Anecdota'', also known as ''Secret History'' ({{langx|grc|Ἀπόκρυφη Ἱστορία}}, ''Apókryphe Historía''; {{langx|la|Historia Arcana}}), was discovered centuries later at the [[Vatican Library]] in Rome<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://www.newyorker.com/reporting/2011/01/03/110103fa_fact_mendelsohn|title = God's Librarians|first = Daniel|last = Mendelsohn|magazine = [[The New Yorker]]|date = 26 December 2010}}</ref> and published in [[Lyon]] by [[Niccolò Alamanni]] in 1623. Its existence was already known from the ''[[Suda]]'', which referred to it as Procopius's "unpublished works" containing "comedy" and "invective" of Justinian, Theodora, Belisarius and Antonina. The ''Secret History'' covers roughly the same years as the first seven books of ''The History of the Wars'' and appears to have been written after they were published. Current consensus generally dates it to 550, or less commonly 558.

In the eyes of many scholars, the ''Secret History'' reveals an author who had become deeply disillusioned with Emperor Justinian, his wife [[Theodora (wife of Justinian I)|Theodora]], the general [[Belisarius]], and his wife [[Antonina (wife of Belisarius)|Antonina]]. The work claims to expose the secret springs of their public actions, as well as the private lives of the emperor and his entourage. Justinian is portrayed as cruel, venal, prodigal, and incompetent. In one passage, it is even claimed that he was possessed by demonic spirits or was himself a demon:

{{Blockquote|And some of those who have been with Justinian at the palace late at night, men who were pure of spirit, have thought they saw a strange demoniac form taking his place. One man said that the Emperor suddenly rose from his throne and walked about, and indeed he was never wont to remain sitting for long, and immediately Justinian's head vanished, while the rest of his body seemed to ebb and flow; whereat the beholder stood aghast and fearful, wondering if his eyes were deceiving him. But presently he perceived the vanished head filling out and joining the body again as strangely as it had left it.<ref>Procopius, ''[http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/basis/procop-anec.html Secret History]'' 12.20–22, trans. Atwater.</ref>}}

Similarly, the Theodora of the ''Secret History'' is a garish portrait of vulgarity and insatiable lust juxtaposed with cold-blooded self-interest, shrewishness, and envious and fearful mean-spiritedness. Among the more titillating (and dubious) revelations in the ''Secret History'' is Procopius's account of Theodora's thespian accomplishments:

{{quote|Often, even in the theatre, in the sight of all the people, she removed her costume and stood nude in their midst, except for a girdle about the groin: not that she was abashed at revealing that, too, to the audience, but because there was a law against appearing altogether naked on the stage, without at least this much of a fig-leaf. Covered thus with a ribbon, she would sink to the stage floor and recline on her back. Slaves to whom the duty was entrusted would then scatter grains of barley from above into the calyx of this passion flower, whence geese, trained for the purpose, would next pick the grains one by one with their bills and eat.<ref>Procopius ''[http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/basis/procop-anec.html Secret History]'' 9.20–21, trans. Atwater.</ref>}}

Justinian and Theodora are portrayed as the antithesis of good rulers, with each representing the opposite side of the emotional spectrum. Justinian was approachable and kindly, even while ordering property confiscations or people's destruction. Conversely, Theodora was described as irrational and driven by her anger, often by minor affronts.<ref>{{Citation |last=Georgiou |first=Andriani |title=Empresses in Byzantine Society: Justifiably Angry or Simply Angry? |date=2019 |url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-319-96038-8_5 |work=Emotions and Gender in Byzantine Culture |series=New Approaches to Byzantine History and Culture |pages=123–126 |editor-last=Constantinou |editor-first=Stavroula |place=Cham |publisher=Springer International Publishing |language=en |doi=10.1007/978-3-319-96038-8_5 |isbn=978-3-319-96037-1 |s2cid=149788509 |editor2-last=Meyer |editor2-first=Mati|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

Furthermore, ''Secret History'' portrays Belisarius as a weak man completely emasculated by his wife, Antonina, who is portrayed in very similar terms to Theodora. They are both said to be former actresses and close friends. Procopius claimed Antonina worked as an agent for Theodora against Belisarius, and had an ongoing affair with Belisarius' godson, Theodosius.

{{anchor|The Buildings|The Buildings of Justinian|Buildings}}
===''The Buildings''===
[[File:Sangarius Bridge. Drawing 01.jpg|thumb|upright|Triumphal arch at the entrance to the [[Sangarius Bridge]]]]

''The Buildings'' ({{langx|grc|Περὶ Κτισμάτων}}, {{lang|grc-Latn|Perì Ktismáton}}; {{langx|la|De Aedificiis}}, "On Buildings") is a [[panegyric]] on Justinian's public works projects throughout the empire.<ref name="Downey">Downey, Glanville: "The Composition of Procopius, De Aedificiis", in ''Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association'' 78: pp.&nbsp;171–183; [https://www.jstor.org/pss/283492 abstract] from JSTOR.</ref> The first book may date to before the collapse of the first dome of [[Hagia Sophia]] in 557, but some scholars think that it is possible that the work postdates the building of the [[Sangarius Bridge|bridge over the Sangarius]] in the late 550s.<ref>Whitby, Michael: "Procopian Polemics: a review of A. Kaldellis ''Procopius of Caesarea. Tyranny, History, and Philosophy at the End of Antiquity''", in ''The Classical Review'' 55 (2006), pp.&nbsp;648ff.</ref> Historians consider ''Buildings'' to be an incomplete work due to evidence of the surviving version being a draft with two possible redactions.<ref name="Downey" />{{sfn|Cameron|1985}}

''Buildings'' was likely written at Justinian's behest, and it is doubtful that its sentiments expressed are sincere. It tells us nothing further about Belisarius, and it takes a sharply different attitude towards Justinian. He is presented as an idealised [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Christian]] emperor who built churches for the glory of God and defenses for the safety of his subjects. He is depicted showing particular concern for the water supply, building new [[Roman aqueduct|aqueducts]] and restoring those that had fallen into disuse. Theodora, who was dead when this panegyric was written, is mentioned only briefly, but Procopius's praise of her beauty is fulsome.

Due to the [[panegyric]]al nature of Procopius's ''Buildings'', historians have discovered several discrepancies between claims made by Procopius and accounts in other primary sources. A prime example is Procopius's starting the reign of Justinian in 518, which was the start of the reign of his uncle and predecessor {{nowrap|[[Justin I]].}} By treating the uncle's reign as part of his nephew's, Procopius was able to credit Justinian with buildings erected or begun under Justin's administration. Such works include renovation of the walls of [[Edessa]] after its 525 flood and consecration of several churches in the region. Similarly, Procopius falsely credits Justinian for the extensive refortification of the cities of [[Constanța|Tomis]] and [[Histria (Sinoe)|Histria]] in [[Scythia Minor (Roman province)|Scythia Minor]]. This had been carried out under {{nowrap|[[Anastasius I (emperor)|Anastasius I]],}} who reigned before Justin.<ref>Croke, Brian and James Crow: "Procopius and Dara", in ''The Journal of Roman Studies'' 73 (1983), 143–159.</ref>