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==Implications == {{Main|Public administration}} Public services can be constructed, coordinated and operated in many ways or forms. They include government agencies, independent [[State (polity)|state]]-funded institutes, government-coordinated organizations, civil society, [[military]] agencies and volunteers. ===Government employees=== Government agencies are not profit-oriented and their employees are often motivated differently.<ref name=":0" /> Studies of their work have found contrasting results including both higher levels of effort<ref name=":0">{{cite journal |last1=Frank |first1=Sue A. |last2=Lewis |first2=Gregory B. |date=March 2004 |title=Government Employees: Working Hard or Hardly Working? |journal=[[The American Review of Public Administration]] |volume=34 |issue=1 |pages=36–51 |doi=10.1177/0275074003258823 |s2cid=155017646}}</ref> and fewer hours of work.<ref>{{cite journal |url=https://www.heritage.org/jobs-and-labor/report/government-employees-work-less-private-sector-employees |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170210042552/http://www.heritage.org/jobs-and-labor/report/government-employees-work-less-private-sector-employees |url-status=unfit |archive-date=February 10, 2017 |title=Government Employees Work Less than Private-Sector Employees |journal=Backgrounder |publisher=The Heritage Foundation |first=Jason |last=Richwine |issue=2724 |pages=1–6 |date=11 September 2012 |access-date=16 January 2016}}</ref> A survey in the UK found that private sector hiring managers do not credit government experience as much as private sector experience.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://business.financialpost.com/executive/careers/public-sector-stigma |title=Public sector stigma: The 100,000 workers Tim Hudak removes from the provincial payroll could have a tough transition to the private sector |work=Financial Post |first=Dan |last=Ovsey |date=27 May 2014 |access-date=16 January 2016}}</ref> Public workers tend to make less in wages when adjusting for education, although that difference is reduced when benefits and hours are included.<ref name=":1">{{cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/volokh-conspiracy/wp/2014/02/07/are-public-sector-employees-overpaid/ |title=Are public-sector employees "overpaid"? |newspaper=The Washington Post |first=Sasha |last=Volokh |date=7 February 2014 |access-date=18 January 2016}}</ref> Public servants have other intangible benefits such as increased job security and high wages.<ref name=":1" /> ===Need satisfaction and sustainability=== A study concluded that public services are associated with higher human [[need]] satisfaction and lower energy requirements while contemporary forms of [[economic growth]] are linked with the opposite. Authors find that the contemporary [[economic system]] is structurally misaligned with goals of [[sustainable development]] and that to date no nation can provide decent [[Standard of living|living standard]]s at sustainable levels of energy and resource use. They provide analysis about factors in social provisioning and assess that improving beneficial provisioning-factors and infrastructure would allow for sustainable forms of sufficient need satisfaction.<ref>{{cite news |title=Securing decent living standards for all while reducing global energy use |url=https://phys.org/news/2021-06-decent-standards-global-energy.html |access-date=10 July 2021 |work=phys.org |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=Socio-economic conditions for satisfying human needs at low energy use: An international analysis of social provisioning |journal=Global Environmental Change |date=29 June 2021 |pages=102287 |doi=10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2021.102287 |language=en |issn=0959-3780|last1=Vogel |first1=Jefim |last2=Steinberger |first2=Julia K. |last3=O'Neill |first3=Daniel W. |last4=Lamb |first4=William F. |last5=Krishnakumar |first5=Jaya |volume=69 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2021GEC....6902287V }}</ref> ===Choice=== ''Open Public Services'', a white paper published by the [[Cameron–Clegg coalition]] in the United Kingdom in July 2011, aimed to create a comprehensive policy framework for "good [[public services]]". It set out the coalition's programme for reform of public services, described as a programme of "wide ambitions" expected to be implemented over a period of time, not all at once.<ref name=ops>Cabinet Office, [https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/open-public-services-white-paper Open public services: white paper], published 1 July 2011, accessed 8 February 2021</ref> Five principles were to underlie open public services: *Choice, wherever possible *Decentralisation to the lowest appropriate level *Diversity *Fairness *Accountablity.<ref name=ops />{{rp|Chapter 2}} The journalist [[David Boyle (author)|David Boyle]] conducted an independent review for the UK's [[HM Treasury|Treasury]] and the [[Cabinet Office]] on public demand for choice in public services which reported in 2013.<ref>Cabinet Office, [https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/barriers-to-choice-public-services-review Barriers to choice - a review of public services and the government's response], published on 24 January 2013, accessed on 19 August 2024</ref> The principle of choice where possible was embodied in the Choice Charter, published on 16 May 2013, where four choice principles were outlined: *allowing people a say in how public services are provided for them *allowing people the opportunity to exercise choice where it is available *making clear, accessible and high-quality information available to support choice *facilitating complaints over the degree of choice offered as well as over the quality of services.<ref name=cch>Open Public Services and Cabinet Office, [https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/choice-charter Choice Charter], published 16 May 2013, accessed 3 May 2024</ref> Between December 2012 and May 2013, "Choice Frameworks" were scheduled for publication covering NHS care, [[social housing]], school education, [[Early Years Foundation Stage|early years]] education and [[adult social care]].<ref name=cch /> ===Nationalization=== [[File:A group of Damas de Rojo.jpg|thumb|A group of [[Chile]]an 'Damas de Rojo', volunteers at their local hospital]] {{Main|Nationalization}} Nationalization took off following the [[World war]]s of the first half of the twentieth century. In parts of [[Europe]], [[central planning]] was implemented in the belief that it would make production more efficient. Many public services, especially electricity, fossil fuels and public transport are products of this era. Following the Second World War, many countries also began to implement [[universal health care]] and expanded [[education]] under the funding and guidance of the state. ===Privatization=== {{Main|Privatization}} There are several ways to privatize public services. A free-market corporation may be established and sold to private investors, relinquishing government control altogether. Thus it becomes a private (not public) service. Another option, used in the [[Nordic countries]], is to establish a corporation, but keep ownership or voting power essentially in the hands of the government. For example, the [[Finland|Finnish state]] owned 49% of [[Kemira]] until 2007, the rest being owned by private investors. A 49% share did not make it a "government enterprise", but it meant that all other investors together would have to oppose the state's opinion in order to overturn the state's decisions in the shareholder's meeting. A regulated corporation can also acquire permits on the agreement that they fulfill certain public service duties. When a private corporation runs a [[natural monopoly]], then the corporation is typically heavily regulated, to prevent abuse of monopoly power. Lastly, the government can buy the service on the free market. In many countries, [[medication]] is provided in this manner: the government reimburses part of the price of the medication. Also, bus traffic, electricity, healthcare and waste management are privatized in this way. One recent innovation, used in the UK increasingly as well as Australia and Canada, is using [[Public–private partnership|public-private partnership]]s, which involve giving a long lease to private consortia in return for partly or fully funding infrastructure costs.
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