Editing Quantum indeterminacy (section)

== Indeterminacy and incompleteness ==
Quantum indeterminacy is the assertion that the state of a system does not determine a unique collection of values for all its measurable properties. Indeed, according to the [[Kochen–Specker theorem]], in the quantum mechanical formalism it is impossible that, for a given quantum state, each one of these measurable properties ([[observable]]s) has a determinate (sharp) value. The values of an observable will be obtained non-deterministically in accordance with a probability distribution that is uniquely determined by the system state. Note that the state is destroyed by measurement, so when we refer to a collection of values, each measured value in this collection must be obtained using a freshly prepared state.

This indeterminacy might be regarded as a kind of essential incompleteness in our description of a physical system. Notice however, that the indeterminacy as stated above only applies to values of measurements not to the quantum state. For example, in the spin 1/2 example discussed above, the system can be prepared in the state ''ψ'' by using measurement of ''σ''<sub>1</sub> as a ''filter'' that retains only those particles such that ''σ''<sub>1</sub> yields +1.  By the von Neumann (so-called) postulates, immediately after the measurement the system is assuredly in the state ''ψ''.

However, [[Albert Einstein]] believed that quantum state cannot be a complete description of a physical system and, it is commonly thought, never came to terms with quantum mechanics. In fact, Einstein, [[Boris Podolsky]] and [[Nathan Rosen]] showed that if quantum mechanics is correct, then the classical view of how the real world works (at least after special relativity) is no longer tenable. This view included the following two ideas:
# A measurable property of a physical system whose value can be predicted with certainty is actually an element of (local) reality (this was the terminology used by [[EPR paradox|EPR]]).
# Effects of local actions have a finite propagation speed.
This failure of the classical view was one of the conclusions of the EPR [[thought experiment]] in which two remotely located [[observation|observers]], now commonly referred to as [[Alice and Bob]], perform independent measurements of spin on a pair of electrons, prepared at a source in a special state called a [[spin singlet]] state. It was a conclusion of EPR, using the formal apparatus of quantum theory, that once Alice measured spin in the ''x'' direction, Bob's measurement in the ''x'' direction was determined with certainty, whereas immediately before Alice's measurement Bob's outcome was only statistically determined. From this it follows that either value of spin in the ''x'' direction is not an element of reality or that the effect of Alice's measurement has infinite speed of propagation.