Editing Runestone (section)

==Inscriptions==
[[File:Maskesten, Moesgård.jpg|thumb|right|upright|The [[Danish Runic Inscription 66|Mask Stone]] (DR 66) found in Aarhus, Denmark commemorates a battle between two kings and features a stylized depiction of a mask.]]
The main purpose of a runestone was to mark territory, to explain inheritance, to boast about constructions, to bring glory to dead kinsmen and to tell of important events. In some parts of Uppland, the runestones also appear to have functioned as social and economical markers.<ref name="harrison195"/>

Virtually all the runestones from the late Viking Age make use of the same formula. The text tells in memory of whom the runestone is raised, who raised it, and often how the deceased and the one who raised the runestone are related to each other. Also, the inscription can tell the social status of the dead person, possible foreign voyage, place of death, and also a prayer, as in the following example,<ref name="harrison196">Harrison & Svensson 2007:196</ref> the [[England Runestones#U 241|Lingsberg Runestone U 241]]:
{{quote|And Danr and Húskarl and Sveinn had the stone erected in memory of Ulfríkr, their father's father. He had taken two [[danegeld|payments]] in [[England]]. May God and God's mother help the souls of the father and son.<ref name="harrison196"/><ref name="rundatau241">The entry U 241 in [[Rundata]].</ref>}}
[[File:Pireuslejonet.jpg|right|thumb|upright|[[Piraeus Lion]] drawing of curved [[lindworm]]. The runes on the lion tell of [[Swedish people|Swedish]] warriors, most likely [[Varangians]], mercenaries in the service of the Byzantine (Eastern Roman) Emperor.]]

===Stone raisers===
Most runestones were raised by men and only one runestone in eight is raised by a single woman, while at least 10% are raised by a woman together with several men. It is common that the runestones were raised by sons and widows of the deceased, but they could also be raised by sisters and brothers. It is almost only in Uppland, Södermanland, and [[Öland]] that women raised runestones together with male relatives. It is not known why many people such as sisters, brothers, uncles, parents, [[housecarl]]s, and business partners can be enumerated on runestones, but it is possible that it is because they are part of the inheritors.<ref name="harrison196"/>

===Those commemorated===

A vast majority, 94%, are raised in memory of men, but, contrary to common perception, the vast majority of the runestones are raised in memory of people who died at home. The most famous runestones and those that people tend to think of are those that tell of foreign voyages, but they comprise only c. 10% of all runestones,<ref name="harrison196"/> and they were raised in usually memory of those not having returned from Viking expeditions and not as tributes to those having returned.<ref name="harrison197"/> These runestones contain roughly the same message as the majority of the runestones, which is that people wanted to commemorate one or several dead kinsmen.<ref name="harrison196"/>

====Expeditions in the East====
[[File:Ög 8, Västra Steninge.jpg|thumb|right|upright|The [[Varangian Runestones#Ög 8|Kälvesten Runestone]], Sweden]]
[[File:Sö 65, Djulefors.jpg|thumb|right|upright|The [[Italy Runestones#Sö 65|Djulafors Runestone]], Sweden]]
The first man who scholars know fell on the eastern route was the [[Östergötland|East Geat]] Eyvindr whose fate is mentioned on the 9th century [[Varangian Runestones#Ög 8|Kälvesten Runestone]].<ref name="harrison196"/> The epitaph reads:

{{quote|Styggr/Stigr made this monument in memory of Eyvindr, his son. He fell in the east with Eivísl. Víkingr coloured and Grímulfr.<ref name="harrison197">Harrison & Svensson 2007:197</ref><ref name="rundataög8">The entry Ög 8 in [[Rundata]].</ref>}}

It is unfortunate for historians that the stones rarely reveal where the men died.<ref name="harrison197"/> On the [[Varangian Runestones#Vg 184|Smula Runestone]] in [[Västergötland]], we are informed only that they died during a war campaign in the East: "Gulli/Kolli raised this stone in memory of his wife's brothers Ásbjôrn and Juli, very good valiant men. And they died in the east in the retinue".<ref name="harrison197"/><ref name="rundatavg184">The entry Vg 184 in [[Rundata]].</ref> Another [[runemaster]] in the same province laconically states on the [[Varangian Runestones#Vg 197|Dalum Runestone]]: "Tóki and his brothers raised this stone in memory of their brothers. One died in the west, another in the east".<ref name="harrison197"/><ref name="rundatavg197">The entry Vg 197 in [[Rundata]].</ref>

The country that is mentioned on the most runestones is the [[Byzantine Empire]], which at the time comprised most of [[Asia Minor]] and the [[Balkans]], as well as a part of Southern Italy. If a man died in the Byzantine Empire, no matter how he had died or in which province, the event was noted as "he died in Greece". Sometimes an exception could be made for Southern Italy, which was known as the land of the [[Lombards]], such as Inga's Óleifr who, it is presumed, was a member of the [[Varangian Guard]], and about whom the [[Italy Runestones#Sö 65|Djulafors Runestone]] in Södermanland says: "Inga raised this stone in memory of Óleifr, her ... He ploughed his stern to the east, and met his end in the land of the Lombards."<ref name="harrison197"/><ref name="rundatasö65">The entry Sö 65 in [[Rundata]].</ref>

Other Norsemen died in [[Gardariki]] (Russia and Ukraine) such as Sigviðr on the [[Varangian Runestones#Sö 171|Esta Runestone]] who his son Ingifastr reported had fled in [[Novgorod]] (''Holmgarðr''): "He fell in Holmgarðr, the ship's leader with the seamen."<ref name="harrison197"/><ref name="rundatasö171">The entry Sö 171 in [[Rundata]].</ref> There were others who died not as far from home and it appears that there were close contacts with [[Estonia]] due to many personal names such as ''Æistfari'' ("traveller to Estonia"), ''Æistulfr'' ("Wolf of Estonians") and Æistr ("Estonian"). One of the runestones that report of deaths in Estonia is the [[Baltic expeditions runestones#U 356|Ängby Runestone]] which tells that a Björn had died in [[Vironia]] (''Virland'').<ref name="harrison197"/>

There were many ways to die as reported by the runestones. The [[Baltic expeditions runestones#Sö 39|Åda Runestone]] reports that Bergviðr drowned during a voyage to [[Livonia]],<ref name="harrison197"/> and the [[Varangian Runestones#G 134|Sjonhem Runestone]] tells that the [[Gotlander]] Hróðfúss was killed in a treacherous way by what was probably a people in the [[Balkans]].<ref name="harrison197ff">Harrison & Svensson 2007:197ff</ref> The most famous [[Varangian Runestones|runestones that tell of eastern voyages]] are the [[Ingvar Runestones]] which tell of [[Ingvar the Far-Travelled]]'s expedition to [[Serkland]], i.e., the Muslim world. It ended in tragedy as none of the more than 25 runestones that were raised in its memory tells of any survivor.<ref name="harrison198">Harrison & Svensson 2007:198</ref>

====Expeditions in the West====
[[File:U 344, Orkesta.JPG|right|thumb|upright|The [[England Runestones#U 344|Yttergärde Runestone]], Sweden]]
[[File:Vallebergastenen lund 2006.jpg|thumb|upright|The [[England Runestones#DR 337|Valleberga Runestone]], Sweden, reports that two Vikings had died in London.]]
Other Vikings travelled westwards. The Anglo-Saxon rulers paid large sums, [[Danegeld]]s, to Vikings, who mostly came from Denmark and who arrived to the English shores during the 990s and the first decades of the 11th century. What may be part of a Danegeld has been found submerged in a creek in Södra Betby in Södermanland, Sweden. At the location, there is also [[Viking Runestones#Sö 260|a runestone]] with the text: "[...] raise the stone in memory of Jôrundr, his son, who was in the west with Ulfr, Hákon's son."<ref name="harrison198"/><ref name="rundatasö260">The entry Sö 260 in [[Rundata]].</ref> It is not unlikely that the voyage westwards is connected with the English silver treasure.<ref name="harrison198"/> Other runestones are more explicit with the Danegelds. [[Ulf of Borresta]] who lived in [[Vallentuna]] travelled westwards several times,<ref name="harrison198"/> as reported on the [[England Runestones#U 344|Yttergärde Runestone]]:
{{quote|And Ulfr has taken three payments in England. That was the last that [[Skagul Toste|Tosti]] paid. Then [[Thorkell the Tall|Þorketill]] paid. Then [[Canute the Great|Knútr]] paid.<ref name="harrison198"/><ref name="rundatasu344">The entry U 344 in [[Rundata]].</ref>}}

Tosti may have been the Swedish chieftain [[Skagul Toste|Skoglar Tosti]] who is otherwise only mentioned by [[Snorri Sturluson]] in ''[[Heimskringla]]'' and who Snorri reports to have been a "great warrior" who "was out for long periods of time on war expeditions". Þorketill was [[Thorkell the Tall]], one of the most famous Viking chieftains, and who often stayed in England. Knútr is no one else but [[Canute the Great]], who became king of England in 1016.<ref name="harrison198"/>

Canute sent home most of the Vikings who had helped him conquer England, but he kept a strong bodyguard, the [[Þingalið]]. It was considered to be a great honour to be part of this force, and, on the [[Viking Runestones#U 668|Häggeby Runestone]] in Uppland, it is reported that Geiri "sat in the Assembly's retinue in the west,"<ref name="harrison198"/><ref name="rundatau668">The entry U 668 in [[Rundata]].</ref> and the [[Viking Runestones#Ög 111|Landeryd Runestone]] mentions Þjalfi, "who was with Knútr".<ref name="harrison198"/><ref name="rundataög111">The entry Ög 111 in [[Rundata]].</ref> Some Swedish Vikings wanted nothing else but to travel with Danes such as Thorkell and Canute the Great, but they did not make it to their destinations. Sveinn, who came from Husby-Sjuhundra in Uppland, died when he was half-way to England, as explained on the [[England Runestones#U 539|runestone that was raised in his memory]]: "He died in [[Jutland|Jútland]]. He meant to travel to England".<ref name="harrison198ff">Harrison & Svensson 2007:198ff</ref><ref name="rundatau539">The entry U 539 in [[Rundata]].</ref> Other Vikings, such as Guðvér did not only attack England, but also [[Saxony]], as reported by the [[England Runestones#Sö 166|Grinda Runestone]] in Södermanland:<ref name="harrison199"/>
{{poemquote|
Grjótgarðr (and) Einriði, the sons
made (the stone) in memory of (their) able father.
Guðvér was in the west;
divided (up) payment in England;
manfully attacked
townships in Saxony.<ref name="harrison199">Harrison & Svensson 2007:199</ref><ref name="rundatasö166">The entry Sö 166 in [[Rundata]].</ref>}}
There are in total about 30 runestones that tell of people who went to England,<ref name="harrison199"/> see the [[England Runestones]]. Some of them are very laconic and only tell that the Viking was buried in [[London]], or in [[Bath, Somerset]].<ref name="harrison199"/>
[[File:Kalle Dahlberg modern runestone.jpg|thumb|upright|Modern runestone on [[Adelsö]] near Stockholm, Sweden]]

===Conversion===
Swedish men who travelled to Denmark, England, or Saxony and the [[Byzantine Empire]] played an important part in the [[Christianization of Scandinavia#Sweden|introduction of Christianity in Sweden]],<ref name="Jansson113">Jansson 1987:113</ref> and two runestones tell of men baptized in Denmark, such as the runestone in Amnö, which says "He died in christening robes in Denmark."<ref name="Jansson112">Jansson 1987:112</ref><ref name="rundatau699">Entry U 699 in [[Rundata]].</ref> A similar message is given on another runestone in [[Vallentuna]] near Stockholm that tells that two sons waited until they were on their death beds before they converted: "They died in (their) christening robes."<ref name="harrison199"/><ref name="rundatau243">The entry U 243 in [[Rundata]].</ref> Christening robes or baptismal clothes, ''hvitavaðir'', were given to pagan Scandinavians when they were baptized, and in Uppland there are at least seven stones that tell of convertees having died in such robes.<ref name="Jansson112" /><ref>A monk in the [[Abbey of St. Gall]] tells of a group of Norsemen who visited the court of the Frankish king [[Louis the Pious]]. They agreed to get baptized and were given valuable baptismal robes, but, as there were not enough robes, the robes were cut up and divided among the Norsemen. One of the Vikings then exclaimed that he had got baptized 20 times and he had always received beautiful potatoes, but this time he got rags that better fit a herdsman than a warrior. (Harrison & Svensson 2007:199)</ref>

The language used by the missionaries appears on several runestones, and they suggest that the missionaries used a rather uniform language when they preached.<ref name="Jansson113"/> The expression "light and paradise" is presented on three runestones, of which two are located in Uppland and a third on the Danish island [[Bornholm]]. The [[Risbyle Runestones#U 160|runestone U 160 in Risbyle]] says "May God and God's mother help his spirit and soul; grant him light and paradise."<ref name="Jansson113"/><ref name="rundatau160">Entry U 160 in [[Rundata]].</ref> and the Bornholm runestone also appeals to [[Michael (archangel)|Saint Michael]]: "May Christ and Saint Michael help the souls of Auðbjôrn and Gunnhildr into light and paradise."<ref name="Jansson113"/><ref name="rundataDR399">Entry DR 399 in [[Rundata]].</ref>

Christian terminology was superimposed on the earlier pagan, and so ''[[Paradise]]'' substituted ''[[Valhalla]]'', invocations to [[Thor]] and magic charms were replaced with Saint Michael, [[Christ]], [[God]], and the [[Theotokos|Mother of God]].<ref name="Jansson113"/> Saint Michael, who was the leader of the army of Heaven, subsumed [[Odin]]'s role as the [[psychopomp]], and led the dead Christians to "light and paradise".<ref name="Jansson114">Jansson 1987:114</ref> There are invocations to Saint Michael on one runestone in Uppland, one on [[Gotland]], on three on [[Bornholm]] and on one on [[Lolland]].<ref name="Jansson113"/>

There is also the Bogesund runestone that testifies to the change that people were no longer buried at the family's grave field: "He died in [[Ekerö|Eikrey]](?). He is buried in the churchyard."<ref name="Jansson118" /><ref name="rundatau170">Entry U 170 in [[Rundata]].</ref>

===Other types of runestones===
Another interesting class of runestone is rune-stone-as-self promotion.  Bragging was a virtue in Norse society, a habit in which the heroes of sagas often indulged, and is exemplified in runestones of the time.  Hundreds of people had stones carved with the purpose of advertising their own achievements or positive traits. A few examples will suffice:
* [[Uppland Rune Inscription 1011|U 1011]]: "Vigmund had this stone carved in memory of himself, the cleverest of men. May God help the soul of Vigmund, the ship captain. Vigmund and Åfrid carved this memorial while he lived."
* [[Frösö Runestone]]: "Östman Gudfast's son made the bridge, and he Christianized Jämtland"
* Dr 212: "Eskill Skulkason had this stone raised to himself.  Ever will stand this memorial that Eskill made;"
* [[Jarlabanke Runestones#U 164|U 164]]: "Jarlabanki had this stone put up in his own lifetime.  And he made this causeway for his soul's sake.  And he owned the whole of [[Täby]] by himself.  May God help his soul."

Other runestones, as evidenced in two of the previous three inscriptions, memorialize the pious acts of relatively new Christians.  In these, we can see the kinds of good works people who could afford to commission runestones undertook.  Other inscriptions hint at religious beliefs.  For example, one reads:
* [[Risbyle Runestones#U 160|U 160]]: "Ulvshattil and Gye and Une ordered this stone erected in memory of Ulv, their good father. He lived in Skolhamra. God and God's Mother save his spirit and soul, endow him with light and paradise."

Although most runestones were set up to perpetuate the memories of men, many speak of women, often represented as conscientious landowners and pious Christians:
* [[Södermanland Runic Inscription 101|Sö 101]]: "Sigrid, Alrik's mother, Orm's daughter made this bridge for her husband Holmgers, father of Sigoerd, for his soul"
as important members of extended families:
* Br Olsen;215: "Mael-Lomchon and the daughter of Dubh-Gael, whom Adils had to wife, raised this cross in memory of Mael-Muire, his fostermother. It is better to leave a good fosterson than a bad son"

and as much-missed loved ones:
* [[Dynna stone|N 68]]: "Gunnor, Thythrik's daughter, made a bridge in memory of her daughter Astrid.  She was the most skilful girl in Hadeland."

<gallery widths="200px" heights="200px">
File:Runenstein Blauzahn 2.jpg|The [[Jelling stones]] which triggered the great runestone trend in Scandinavia{{According to whom|date=November 2015}}
File:Gs 13, Gävle.jpg|The runestone [[Gs 13]] documents an early 11th-century Swedish Viking who died in Finland
File:Runesten fra Kingittorsuaq.jpg|The [[Kingittorsuaq Runestone]] from [[Greenland]]
File:Kbh DR216 Tirsted sten 1.jpg|Runestone from Tirsted in the National Museum of Denmark
File:Tirsted-stenen Dmr tgn sa 0165.tif|Runestone from Tirsted drawing from 1765
</gallery>

===As sources===
The only existing Scandinavian texts dating to the period before 1050<ref name="Pritsak307"/> (besides a few finds of inscriptions on coins) are found amongst the runic inscriptions, some of which were scratched onto pieces of wood or metal spearheads, but for the most part they have been found on actual stones.<ref>Sawyer, B. 2000:1</ref> In addition, the runestones usually remain in their original form<ref name="Pritsak307">Pritsak 1987:307</ref> and at their original locations,<ref name="Pritsak308">Pritsak 1987:308</ref> and so their importance as historical sources cannot be overstated.<ref name="Pritsak307"/>

The inscriptions seldom provide solid historical evidence of events and identifiable people but instead offer insight into the development of language and poetry, kinship, and habits of name-giving, settlement, depictions from [[Norse paganism]], place-names and communications, Viking as well as trading expeditions, and, not least, the spread of [[Christianity]].<ref>Sawyer, B. 2000:3</ref> Though the stones offer Scandinavian historians their main resource of information concerning early Scandinavian society, not much can be learned by studying the stones individually. The wealth of information that the stones provide can be found in the different movements and reasons for erecting the stones, in each region respectively. Approximately ten percent of the known runestones announce the travels and deaths of men abroad. These runic inscriptions coincide with certain [[Latin]] sources, such as the ''[[Annals of St. Bertin]]'' and the writings of [[Liutprand of Cremona|Liudprand of Cremona]], which contain valuable information on Scandinavians/[[Rus' (people)|Rus']] who visited Byzantium.<ref>Sawyer, P. 1997:139</ref>