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====Vertebrates==== [[File:Gecko foot on glass.JPG|thumb|right|Close-up of the underside of a gecko's foot as it walks on vertical glass]] [[File:Hemidactylus_frenatus_mating,_ventral_view.jpg|thumb|[[Common house gecko]]s mating on a vertical glass window and showing [[Lamella_(surface_anatomy)|lamellae]] under the feet]] The pads on a [[gecko]]'s feet are small hair-like [[process (anatomy)|process]]es that play a role in the animal's ability to cling to vertical surfaces. The micrometer-scale setae branch into nanometer-scale projections called [[Spatulae (biology)|spatulae]].<ref name=Santos2007>{{cite journal |last=Santos |first=Daniel |author2=Matthew Spenko |author3=Aaron Parness |author4=Kim Sangbae |author5=Mark Cutkosky|title=Directional adhesion for climbing: theoretical and practical considerations |journal=Journal of Adhesion Science and Technology |year=2007 |volume=21 |issue=12–13 |pages=1317–1341|issn=0169-4243|doi=10.1163/156856107782328399 |s2cid=53470787 |quote=''Gecko "feet and toes are a hierarchical system of complex structures consisting of lamellae, setae, and spatulae. The distinguishing characteristics of the gecko adhesion system have been described [as] (1) anisotropic attachment, (2) high pulloff force to preload ratio, (3) low detachment force, (4) material independence, (5) self-cleaning, (6) anti-self sticking and (7) non-sticky default state. ... The gecko’s adhesive structures are made from ß-keratin (modulus of elasticity [approx.] 2 GPa). Such a stiff material is not inherently sticky; however, because of the gecko adhesive’s hierarchical nature and extremely small distal features (spatulae are [approx.] 200 nm in size), the gecko’s foot is able to intimately conform to the surface and generate significant attraction using van der Waals forces.''}}</ref> A [[Tokay gecko]]'s two front feet can sustain 20.1 N of force parallel to the surface using approximately 14,400 setae per mm<sup>2</sup>. This equates to ~ 6.2 pN per seta, but does not sufficiently account for the overall stickiness behavior shown by the foot pads.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Autumn|first1=K.|last2=Puthoff|first2=J.|editor=Smith, A.M., Callow, J.A.|year=2006|chapter=Properties, principles, and parameters of the gecko adhesive system|title=Biological adhesives|pages=245–280|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-3-540-31048-8}}</ref>
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