Editing Siegfried Line campaign (section)

==Campaign==
===Northern Group of Armies (21st Army Group)===
====Channel ports====
{{Main|Clearing the Channel Coast|Operation Astonia|Operation Fusilade|Operation Wellhit|Operation Undergo|Siege of Dunkirk (1944)}}
[[File:The British Army in Normandy 1944 B9743.jpg|thumb|British infantry of the 1st Battalion, [[Royal Hampshire Regiment|Hampshire Regiment]] crossing the Seine at [[Vernon, Eure|Vernon]], 28 August 1944.]]

The [[Channel ports]] were urgently needed to maintain the Allied armies. By the time that [[Brussels]] was liberated, it had become difficult to supply the 21st Army Group adequately. Indeed, one corps—[[VIII Corps (United Kingdom)|VIII Corps]]—was withdrawn from active service to free its transport for general use. The Canadian First Army was tasked with liberating the ports during its advance along the French coast.<ref>{{cite web|last=Stacey|title=Chapter XIII: Antwerp, Arnhem and Some Controversies, August–September 1944. The Pursuit to the Somme and Antwerp|work=Official History of the Canadian Army|publisher=Department of National Defence|url= http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/UN/Canada/CA/Victory/Victory-13.html|access-date=1 July 2009}}</ref> The ports involved were Le Havre, [[Dieppe, Seine-Maritime|Dieppe]], [[Boulogne]], Calais, and Dunkirk in France, as well as [[Ostend]] in Belgium. [[Adolf Hitler]] had appreciated their strategic value. He issued a [[Fuehrer Order|Führer Order]] declaring them to be "[[German World War II strongholds|fortresses]]" that must receive adequate materiel for a siege and be held to the last man.

Dieppe was evacuated by the Germans before Hitler's order had been received and, consequently, the Canadians took it with little trouble and with the port installations largely intact. Ostend had been omitted from the Führer Order and was also undefended, although demolitions delayed its use. The other ports were defended to varying degrees, however, and they required substantial work to bring them into use, except for Dunkirk which was sealed off to the rear of the Allied advance.

====Market Garden====
{{main|Operation Market Garden}}

The first operation of the [[Rhineland]] campaign, ''Market Garden'', was commanded by Montgomery and was to secure a bridgehead over the Rhine in the north, at [[Arnhem]], which would outflank the Siegfried Line.

''Market Garden'' had two distinct parts. ''Market'' was to be the largest airborne operation in history, dropping three and a half divisions of American, British, and Polish paratroopers to capture key bridges and prevent their demolition by the Germans. ''Garden'' was a ground attack by the [[Second Army (United Kingdom)|British Second Army]] across the bridges. It was assumed that the German forces would still be recovering from the previous campaign and opposition would not be very stiff for either operation.

If successful, the Allies would have a direct route into Germany that bypassed the main German defenses and also seize territory from which the Germans launched [[V-1 (flying bomb)|V-1s]] and [[V-2 rocket|V-2s]] against [[London]], Antwerp and elsewhere.

General Eisenhower approved ''Market Garden''. On September 10 he gave supply priority to the 21st Army Group and decided to divert the [[First United States Army|U.S. First Army]] to the north of the [[Ardennes]] to stage limited attacks to draw German defenders south, away from the target sites.

[[File:Final briefing.jpg|thumb|American paratroopers receive a final briefing from their commanding officer before emplaning, 17 September 1944]]
The operation was launched on 17 September. At first, it went well. The U.S. [[101st Airborne Division|101st]] and [[82nd Airborne Division]]s took their objectives at [[Eindhoven]], [[Veghel]] and [[Nijmegen]]. However, the 82nd failed to capture its main objectives, the Nijmegen bridges, and instead its commander focused on the Groesbeek Heights. Although their landings outside Arnhem were on target, the [[1st Airborne Division (United Kingdom)|British 1st Airborne Division]] landing zones were some distance from Arnhem bridge and only on the north side of the river. Problems arose when the British 1st Airborne Division lost vital equipment—jeeps and heavy anti-tank guns—when gliders crashed. There had also been a severe underestimation of German strength in the area. To make matters worse, poor weather prevented aerial reinforcements and drastically reduced resupply. German resistance to the forces driving to Arnhem was highly effective, and a copy of the Allied battle plan had been captured.

In the end, ''Market Garden'' was unsuccessful. Arnhem bridge was not held and the British paratroops suffered tremendous casualties—approximately 77% by 25 September. The failure of the 82nd to capture the Nijmegen bridges in a coup de main meant that the British ground forces meant to relieve the 1st Airborne Division at Arnhem were delayed for 36 hours, as the Guards Armoured Division, despite arriving in Nijmegen ahead of schedule, was forced to pour its forces to capture the bridges, instead of simply moving across, as had been planned.<ref name=montys_men_384/> The allies managed to hold on to the salient in early October by [[Battle of the Nijmegen salient|repelling a German counter offensive]].

====Battle of the Scheldt====
{{main|Battle of the Scheldt|Operation Pheasant}}

The logistics situation was becoming critical, so opening the [[Port of Antwerp]] was now a high priority. On 12 September 1944, the Canadian First Army was given the task of clearing the Scheldt of German forces. The 1st Army comprised the [[II Canadian Corps]], which included the [[1st Armoured Division (Poland)|Polish 1st Armoured Division]], the British [[49th (West Riding) Infantry Division|49th]] and [[52nd (Lowland) Infantry Division|52nd Division]]s and the [[I Corps (United Kingdom)|British I Corps]].

The task involved four main operations: The first was to clear the area north of Antwerp and secure access to [[South Beveland]]. The second was to clear the [[Breskens]] pocket north of the [[Leopold Canal (Belgium)|Leopold Canal]] ([[Operation Switchback]]). The third—[[Operation Vitality]]—was the capture of South Beveland. The final phase was the capture of [[Walcheren]] Island, which had been fortified into a powerful German stronghold.

On 21 September 1944, the advance began. The [[4th Canadian Division|4th Canadian Armoured Division]], moving north toward the south shore of the Scheldt around the Dutch town of Breskens, were the first Allied troops to face the formidable obstacle of the double line of the Leopold and Dérivation de la Lys Canals. The canals were crossed and a bridgehead established, but fierce counter-attacks by the Germans forced them to withdraw with heavy casualties. The 1st Polish Armoured Division had greater success, moving northeast to the coast, occupying [[Terneuzen]] and clearing the south bank of the Scheldt eastward to Antwerp. It was by then clear, however, that any further advances would be at tremendous cost.

[[File:British Landings on Walcheren BU1255.jpg|thumb|British assault troops advancing near [[Flushing, Netherlands|Flushing]] with shells bursting ahead during the Scheldt operation.]]

The [[2nd Canadian Division|2nd Canadian Infantry Division]] began its advance north from Antwerp on 2 October. Heavy casualties ensued, including the almost total destruction of the [[5th Canadian Infantry Brigade]]'s [[The Black Watch (Royal Highland Regiment) of Canada|Black Watch Battalion]] on 13 October. However, on 16 October [[Woensdrecht]] was taken, following an immense artillery barrage which forced the Germans back. This cut South Beveland and Walcheren off from the mainland and achieved the objective of the first operation.

Montgomery issued a directive that made the opening of the Scheldt estuary the top priority. To the east, the British Second Army attacked westward to clear the Netherlands south of the [[Meuse]] (''Maas''). This helped secure the Scheldt region from counter-attack.

In Operation Switchback, the [[3rd Canadian Division|3rd Canadian Infantry Division]] mounted a two-pronged attack, with the [[7th Canadian Infantry Brigade]] crossing the Leopold Canal and the [[9th Canadian Infantry Brigade]] launching an amphibious assault from the coastal side of the pocket. Despite fierce resistance from the Germans, the [[10th Canadian Infantry Brigade]] crossed the Leopold Canal and the [[8th Canadian Infantry Brigade]] moved southwards, opening a supply route into the pocket.

''Operation Vitality''—the third major phase of the Battle of the Scheldt—began on 24 October. The 2nd Canadian Infantry Division began its advance toward South Beveland, but was slowed by mines, mud and strong enemy defences. The British 52nd Division made an [[Amphibious warfare|amphibious attack]] to get in behind the Germans' Beveland Canal defensive positions. Thus, this formidable defence was outflanked, and the [[6th Canadian Infantry Brigade]] began a frontal attack in assault boats. The engineers were able to bridge the canal on the main road. With the canal line gone, the German defence crumbled and South Beveland was cleared. The third phase of the Battle of the Scheldt was now complete.

The final phase, Operation Infatuate was the attack on the heavily fortified island of Walcheren at the mouth of the West Scheldt. The island's dykes were breached by attacks from [[RAF Bomber Command]] on 3, 7, and 11 October. This flooded the central part of the island, forcing the German defenders onto the high ground and allowing the use of amphibious vehicles. Units of the 2nd Canadian Infantry Division attacked the causeway on 31 October, and after a grim struggle, established a precarious foothold. They were relieved by a battalion of the British 52nd Division. In conjunction with the waterborne attacks, the 52nd continued the advance.
[[File:German POWs captured during the Allied assault on Walcheren Island in Holland, November 1944. BU1267.jpg|thumb|German prisoners on [[Walcheren]] – around 40,000 were taken after the [[Operation Infatuate]] had terminated]]

The amphibious landings began on 1 November with units of the British 155th Infantry Brigade landing on a beach in the south-eastern area of [[Vlissingen]]. During the next few days, they engaged in heavy street fighting against the German defenders. Also on 1 November, after a heavy naval bombardment by the British [[Royal Navy]], troops of [[4th Special Service Brigade|4th Commando Brigade]], (with units of 10th Inter Allied Commando, consisting mainly of [[Belgium|Belgian]] and [[Norway|Norwegian]] troops), supported by specialised armoured vehicles of the [[79th Armoured Division (United Kingdom)|British 79th Armoured Division]] were landed on both sides of the gap in the sea dyke. Heavy fighting ensued. A smaller force moved south-eastward, toward Vlissingen, while the main force went northeast to clear the northern half of Walcheren to link up with the Canadians who had established a bridgehead on the eastern part of the island. Fierce resistance was again offered by German troops defending the area, and fighting continued until 7 November. However, the action ended on 8 November after a force of amphibious vehicles entered [[Middelburg, Zeeland|Middelburg]], the capital of Walcheren.

Meanwhile, Operation Pheasant was launched in on October 20 which was intended as a major operation to clear German troops from the Province of [[North Brabant]] in conjunction with the battle of the Scheldt. The offensive after some resistance liberated most of region; the cities of [[Tilburg]], [['s-Hertogenbosch]], [[Willemstad, North Brabant|Willemstad]] and [[Roosendaal]] were liberated by British forces. [[Bergen Op Zoom]] was taken by the Canadians and the Polish 1st Armoured Division led by General [[Stanisław Maczek|Maczek]] liberated the city of [[Breda]]. As a result, the German positions which had defended the region along its canals and rivers had been broken. The operation was also a success in that civilian casualties were relatively light.

Meanwhile, the 4th Canadian Armoured Division had pushed eastwards past Bergen-op-Zoom to [[Sint Philipsland (island)|Sint Philipsland]] where it sank several German vessels in [[Zijpe]] harbour. With the approaches to Antwerp free, the fourth phase of the Battle of the Scheldt was complete; on 28 November, the first convoy entered the port.

===Central Group of Armies (12th Army Group)===
====Northern France and Belgium====
The US First Army advanced rapidly through northern France and Belgium during late August and early September, with its main goal being to reach the Rhine before the Germans could establish defensive positions there. During the [[Battle of the Mons Pocket]] the Allies encircled approximately 70,000 Germans near [[Mons, Belgium|Mons]] in Belgium, and took around 25,000 prisoners.<ref name="Europe Remembers">{{cite web |title=The Mons Pocket, or the "Petit Stalingrad" of the Borinage |url=https://europeremembers.com/story/the-mons-pocket-or-the-petit-stalingrad-of-the-borinage/ |website=Europe Remembers |publisher=Liberation Route Europe Foundation |access-date=21 March 2021}}</ref> 

====Aachen====
{{main|Battle of Aachen}}
[[File:Pursuit to the West Wall 1944.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|The advance of Allied forces between 26 August and 14 September 1944]]{{Campaignbox Campaign of Germany (WW2)}}
The U.S. First Army was focused on capturing the city of [[Aachen]], which had to be dealt with before advancing to assault the Siegfried Line itself. Initially, the city of Aachen was to be bypassed and cut off in an attempt by the Allies to imitate the ''Blitzkrieg'' tactics the Germans had so effectively used (see below). However, the city was the first to be assaulted on German soil and so had huge historical and cultural significance for the German people. Hitler personally ordered that the garrison there be reinforced and the city held. This forced the Allied commanders to re-think their strategy.

Some historians, including [[Stephen E. Ambrose]], have suggested that the siege of Aachen was a mistake. The battle stalled the eastward advance by the Allies and caused approximately 5,000 Allied casualties. The fighting was, by all accounts, brutal street-to-street, house-to-house style [[urban combat]] and tied up the available resources of the advancing Allied armies. Ambrose has suggested that a more effective strategy would have been to isolate the garrison at Aachen and continue the move east into the heart of Germany. In theory, this would have eliminated the ability of the German garrison to operate as a fighting force by cutting off their supply lines. This might have forced them to surrender or to move out of the city in an attempt to re-establish their supply lines. In the case of the latter, a confrontation in a more neutral setting would probably have resulted in fewer military and civilian casualties.

====Lorraine====
{{main|Lorraine Campaign}}

In late August, the [[United States Army Central|U.S. Third Army]] started to run low on fuel. This situation was caused by the rapid Allied advance through France, and compounded by the shift of logistical priority to the northern forces to secure Antwerp. By 1 September 1944, with the last of its fuel, the Third Army managed one final push to capture key bridges over the [[Meuse River]] at [[Verdun-sur-Meuse|Verdun]] and [[Commercy]]. Five days after that, however, the critical supply situation effectively caused the Third Army to grind to a halt, allowing previously routed German forces to regroup and the reinforcement of their strongholds in the area.

Soon after, the Third Army came up against [[Metz]], part of the [[Maginot Line]] and one of the most heavily fortified cities in Western Europe. The city could not be bypassed, as several of its forts had guns directed at Moselle crossing sites and the main roads in the area. It could also be used as a stronghold to organize a German counter-attack to the Third Army's rear. In the following [[Battle of Metz]], the Third Army, while victorious, took heavy casualties.

Following Metz, the Third Army continued eastwards to the [[Saar (river)|Saar River]] and soon began their assault on the Siegfried Line.

====Hürtgen Forest====
{{main|Battle of Hürtgen Forest}}
[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 183-J28303, Hürtgenwald, schweres Infanteriegeschütz.jpg|thumb|German troops defending the Hürtgen in November 1944.]]

[[Hürtgen Forest]] was seen as a possible location for incursions into the American flank, and the river dams in the area were a threat to the Allied advance downstream, so the Allies launched an assault to clear the area of German resistance on 19 September 1944. German defence was more stubborn than expected and the terrain was highly favourable to defence, largely negating the American advantages of numbers and quality of troops. The battle—expected to last a few weeks—continued until February 1945 and cost 33,000 casualties (from all causes).

The value of the battle has been disputed. Modern historians argue that the outcome was not worth the foreseeable losses, and in any case, the American tactics played into German hands.<ref>Weigley (1981), pp. 364–369</ref>

====Operation Queen====
[[Operation Queen]] was a combined Allied air-ground offensive against the German forces at the Siegfried Line, which was conducted mainly by the combined effort of the U.S. Ninth and First Armies. The principal goal of the operation was to advance to the Roer River and to establish several bridgeheads over it, for a subsequent thrust into Germany to the Rhine River. Parts of this operation also included further fighting in the Hurtgen Forest. The offensive commenced on 16 November with one of the heaviest tactical air bombardments by the western Allies of the war. Although the German forces were heavily outnumbered, the Allied advance was very slow. After four weeks of intensive fighting, the Allies reached the Roer, but were not able to establish any bridgeheads over it. Fighting in the Hurtgen Forest also bogged down. The exhaustive fighting during ''Queen''  caused the Allied troops to suffer heavy casualties, and eventually the Germans launched their own counteroffensive—Operation ''Wacht am Rhein''—on 16 December, which would lead to the Battle of the Bulge.