Editing Sindh (section)

=== Medieval era ===
After the death of the Islamic prophet [[Muhammad]], the Arab expansion towards the east reached the Sindh region beyond [[Persia]].<ref name="UNESCO">{{citation|last1=El Hareir|first1=Idris|last2=Mbaye |first2=Ravane |title=The Spread of Islam Throughout the World |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qVYT4Kraym0C&pg=PA602|year=2012|publisher=UNESCO|isbn=978-92-3-104153-2|page=602}}</ref> The connection between the Sindh and [[Islam]] was established by the initial Muslim invasions during the [[Rashidun Caliphate]]. Al-Hakim ibn Jabalah al-Abdi, who attacked [[Makran]] in the year 649, was an early partisan of [[Ali|Ali ibn Abu Talib]].<ref name="MacLean, Derryl N. 1989 pp. 1262">MacLean, Derryl N. (1989), Religion and Society in Arab Sind, pp. 126, BRILL, {{ISBN|90-04-08551-3}}</ref> During the caliphate of Ali, many Jats of Sindh had come under the influence of Shi'ism<ref>S. A. A. Rizvi, "A socio-intellectual History of Isna Ashari Shi'is in India", Volo. 1, pp. 138, Mar'ifat Publishing House, Canberra (1986).</ref> and some even participated in the [[Battle of Camel]] and died fighting for [[Ali]].<ref name="MacLean, Derryl N. 1989 pp. 1262" /> Under the Umayyads (661–750), many Shias sought asylum in the region of Sindh, to live in relative peace in the remote area. Ziyad Hindi is one of those refugees.<ref>S. A. N. Rezavi, "The Shia Muslims", in History of Science, Philosophy and Culture in Indian Civilization, Vol. 2, Part. 2: "Religious Movements and Institutions in Medieval India", Chapter 13, Oxford University Press (2006).</ref> The first clash with the [[Hindu king]]s of Sindh took place in 636 (15 AH) under Caliph [[Umar ibn al-Khattab]] with the governor of Bahrain, [[Uthman ibn Abu-al-Aas]], dispatching naval expeditions against [[Thane]] and [[Bharuch]] and [[Debal]].<ref>{{citation|last1=El Hareir|first1=Idris|last2=Mbaye|first2=Ravane|title=The Spread of Islam Throughout the World|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qVYT4Kraym0C&pg=PA601 |year=2012|publisher=UNESCO |isbn=978-92-3-104153-2|pages=601–602}}</ref> [[Al-Baladhuri]] states they were victorious at Debal but doesn't mention the results of other two raids. However, the ''[[Chach Nama]]'' states that the raid of Debal was defeated and its governor killed the leader of the raids.<ref>{{citation|last=Majumdar |first=Ramesh Chandra |author-link=Ramesh Chandra Majumdar|title=Readings in political history of India, ancient, mediaeval, and modern|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YvggAAAAMAAJ|year=1976 |publisher=B.R. Pub. Corp., on behalf of Indian Society for Prehistoric and Quaternary Studies|page=216}}</ref> These raids were thought to be triggered by a later pirate attack on Umayyad ships.{{sfn|Tripathi|1967|p=337}} Baladhuri adds that this stopped any more incursions until the reign of [[Uthman]].{{sfn|Asif|2016|p=35}}

In 712, [[Muhammad ibn al-Qasim|Mohammed Bin Qasim]] defeated the [[Brahmin dynasty of Sindh|Brahmin dynasty]] and [[Sind (caliphal province)|annexed it to the Umayyad Caliphate]]. This marked the beginning of Islam in the Indian subcontinent. The [[Habbari dynasty]] ruled much of Greater Sindh, as a semi-independent ''emirate'' from 854 to 1024. Beginning with the rule of 'Umar bin Abdul Aziz al-Habbari in 854, the region became semi-independent from the [[Abbasid Caliphate]] in 861, while continuing to nominally pledge allegiance to the Abbasid Caliph in [[Baghdad]].<ref name="Singh2">P. M. ( Nagendra Kumar Singh), ''Muslim Kingship in India'', Anmol Publications, 1999, {{ISBN|81-261-0436-8}}, {{ISBN|978-81-261-0436-9}} pg 43-45.</ref><ref name="Maclean2">P. M. ( Derryl N. Maclean), ''Religion and society in Arab Sindh'', Published by Brill, 1989, {{ISBN|90-04-08551-3}}, {{ISBN|978-90-04-08551-0}} pg 140-143.</ref> The Habbaris ruled Sindh until they were defeated by [[Sultan]] [[Mahmud of Ghazni|Mahmud Ghaznavi]] in 1026, who then went on to destroy the old Habbari capital of Mansura, and annex the region to the [[Ghaznavid|Ghaznavid Empire]], thereby ending Arab rule of Sindh.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6lI9AAAAMAAJ&q=ghaznavid+mansura|title=An Observation: Perspective of Pakistan|last=Abdulla|first=Ahmed|date=1987|publisher=Tanzeem Publishers|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=K8kO4J3mXUAC&q=ghaznavid+mansura&pg=PA6 |title=Economic History of Medieval India, 1200-1500|last=Habib|first=Irfan|date=2011 |publisher=Pearson Education India|isbn=978-81-317-2791-1|language=en}}</ref>

The [[Soomra dynasty]] was a local Sindhi Muslim dynasty that ruled between early 11th century and the 14th century.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Siddiqui |first=Habibullah |title=The Soomras of Sindh: their origin, main characteristics and rule – an overview (general survey) (1025–1351 CE) |url=http://www.uok.edu.pk/faculties/sindhi/docs/soomroEng.pdf |journal=Literary Conference on Soomra Period in Sindh}}</ref><ref name="IJDL-2007">{{cite journal |date=2007 |title=The Arab Conquest |journal=International Journal of Dravidian Linguistics |volume=36 |issue=1 |page=91 |quote=The Soomras are believed to be Parmar Rajputs found even today in Rajasthan, Saurashtra, Kutch and Sindh. The Cambridge History of India refers to the Soomras as "a Rajput dynasty the later members of which accepted Islam" (p. 54 ).}}</ref><ref name="Dani-2007">{{Cite book |last=Dani |first=Ahmad Hasan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=D_xtAAAAMAAJ&q=soomra+dynasty |title=History of Pakistan: Pakistan through ages |date=2007 |publisher=Sang-e Meel Publications |isbn=978-969-35-2020-0 |pages=218 |language=en |quote=But as many kings of the dynasty bore Hindu names, it is almost certain that the Soomras were of local origin. Sometimes they are connected with Paramara Rajputs, but of this there is no definite proof.}}</ref> Later chroniclers like [[Ali ibn al-Athir]] (c. late 12th c.) and [[Ibn Khaldun]] (c. late 14th c.) attributed the fall of Habbarids to Mahmud of Ghazni, lending credence to the argument of Hafif being the last Habbarid.<ref name="Collinet-2008a">{{Cite book |last=Collinet |first=Annabelle |title=Sindh through history and representations : French contributions to Sindhi studies |date=2008 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-547503-6 |editor-last=Boivin |editor-first=Michel |location=Karachi |pages=9, 11, 113 (note 43) |language=en |chapter=Chronology of Sehwan Sharif through Ceramics (The Islamic Period)}}</ref> The Soomras appear to have established themselves as a regional power in this power vacuum.<ref name="Collinet-2008a"/><ref name="Boivin-2008a">{{Cite book |last=Boivin |first=Michel |title=Sindh through history and representations : French contributions to Sindhi studies |date=2008 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-547503-6 |editor-last=Boivin |editor-first=Michel |location=Karachi |pages=30 |language=en |chapter=Shivaite Cults And Sufi Centres: A Reappraisal Of The Medieval Legacy In Sindh}}</ref> The [[Ghurid dynasty|Ghurids]] and [[Ghaznavids]] continued to rule parts of Sindh, across the eleventh and early twelfth century, alongside Soomrus.<ref name="Collinet-2008a"/> The precise delineations are not yet known but Sommrus were probably centered in lower Sindh.<ref name="Collinet-2008a"/> Some of them were adherents of [[Isma'ilism]].<ref name="Boivin-2008a"/> One of their kings Shimuddin Chamisar had submitted to [[Iltutmish]], the [[Sultan of Delhi]], and was allowed to continue on as a vassal.<ref name="Ray201932">{{cite book |author=Aniruddha Ray |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jNSNDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT43 |title=The Sultanate of Delhi (1206-1526): Polity, Economy, Society and Culture |date=4 March 2019 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-1-00-000729-9 |pages=43–}}</ref>

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| header            = [[Makli Necropolis]]
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| image1            = Artwork on Jam nizamuddin tomb.jpg
| image2            = Makli 12 cropped - Diwan Shurfa Khan's tomb.jpg
| image3            = Jam Mubarak Khan .jpg
| image4            = Historical Monuments at Makli, Thatta-108247.jpg
| footer            = The [[Makli Necropolis]] at [[Thatta]] is one of the largest funerary sites in the world.<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/143 | title=Historical Monuments at Makli, Thatta}}</ref>
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The [[Samma (tribe)|Sammas]] overthrew the Soomras soon after 1335 and established the Sindh Sultanate. The last Soomra ruler took shelter with the governor of [[Gujarat]], under the protection of [[Muhammad bin Tughluq]], the [[sultan of Delhi]].<ref name="(Pakistan)Latif197622">{{cite book |author1=Census Organization (Pakistan) |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=63maAAAAIAAJ&q=yadav+rajputs |title=Population Census of Pakistan, 1972: Larkana |author2=Abdul Latif |publisher=Manager of Publications |year=1976}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Rapson |first1=Edward James |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mBNZAAAAYAAJ&q=Samma+ |title=The Cambridge History of India: Turks and Afghans, edited by W. Haig |last2=Haig |first2=Sir Wolseley |last3=Burn |first3=Sir Richard |last4=Dodwell |first4=Henry |date=1965 |publisher=Chand |pages=518 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="guj2">{{cite book |author1=U. M. Chokshi |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-qHiAAAAMAAJ |title=Gujarat State Gazetteer |author2=M. R. Trivedi |publisher=Director, Government Print., Stationery and Publications, Gujarat State |year=1989 |page=274 |quote=It was the conquest of Kutch by the Sindhi tribe of Sama Rajputs that marked the emergence of Kutch as a separate kingdom in the 14th century.}}</ref> Mohammad bin Tughlaq made an expedition against Sindh in 1351 and died at Sondha, possibly in an attempt to restore the Soomras. With this, the Sammas became independent. The next sultan, [[Firuz Shah Tughlaq]] attacked Sindh in 1365 and 1367, unsuccessfully, but with reinforcements from [[Delhi]] he later obtained Banbhiniyo's surrender. For a period the Sammas were therefore subject to Delhi again. Later, as the Sultanate of Delhi collapsed they became fully independent.<ref name="panhwar.com22">{{Cite web |url=http://www.panhwar.com/Article162.htm |title=Directions in the History and Archaeology of Sindh by M. H. Panhwar |access-date=12 January 2023 |archive-date=25 December 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181225062314/http://www.panhwar.com/Article162.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref> Jam Unar was the founder of Samma dynasty mentioned by [[Ibn Battuta]].<ref name="panhwar.com22"/> The Samma civilization contributed significantly to the evolution of the [[Indo-Islamic architecture|Indo-Islamic architectural]] style. Thatta is famous for its necropolis, which covers 10 square km on the [[Makli Hill]].<ref>[http://archnet.org/library/places/one-place.jsp?place_id=2179&order_by=year&showdescription=1 Archnet.org: Thattah] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120606120407/https://archnet.org/library/places/one-place.jsp?place_id=2179&order_by=year&showdescription=1|date=2012-06-06}}</ref> It has left its mark in Sindh with magnificent structures including the [[Makli Necropolis]] of its royals in Thatta.<ref name="(Pakistan)Latif19763">{{cite book |author1=Census Organization (Pakistan) |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=63maAAAAIAAJ&q=yadav+rajputs |title=Population Census of Pakistan, 1972: Larkana |author2=Abdul Latif |publisher=Manager of Publications |year=1976}}</ref><ref>Population Census of Pakistan, 1972: Jacobabad</ref> They were later overthrown by the Turkic [[Arghun dynasty|Arghuns]] in the late 15th century.<ref>The Travels of Marco Polo - Complete (Mobi Classics) By Marco Polo, Rustichello of Pisa, Henry Yule (Translator)</ref><ref name="Bosworth p. 329">Bosworth, "New Islamic Dynasties," p. 329</ref>