Editing Socratic method (section)

==Modern applications==

===Socratic seminar===
A '''Socratic seminar''' (also known as a '''Socratic circle''') is a pedagogical approach based on the Socratic method and uses a [[dialogic]] approach to understand information in a text. Its systematic procedure is used to examine a text through questions and answers founded on the beliefs that all new knowledge is connected to prior knowledge, that all thinking comes from asking questions, and that asking one question should lead to asking further questions.<ref name=Copeland>{{cite book|last=Copeland|first=Matt|title=Socratic Circles: Fostering Critical and Creative Thinking in Middle and High School|year=2010|publisher=Stenhouse|location=Portland, ME}}</ref> A Socratic seminar is not a debate. The goal of this activity is to have participants work together to construct meaning and arrive at an answer, not for one student or one group to "win the argument".<ref name=Litunes>{{cite web|title=The Socratic Circle|url=http://www.corndancer.com/tunes/tunes_print/soccirc.pdf|access-date=17 July 2012|archive-date=19 February 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180219041503/http://www.corndancer.com/tunes/tunes_print/soccirc.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>

This approach is based on the belief that participants seek and gain deeper understanding of concepts in the text through thoughtful dialogue rather than memorizing information that has been provided for them.<ref name=Litunes /> While Socratic seminars can differ in structure, and even in name, they typically involve a passage of text that students must read beforehand and facilitate dialogue. Sometimes, a facilitator will structure two concentric circles of students: an outer circle and an inner circle. The inner circle focuses on exploring and analysing the text through the act of questioning and answering. During this phase, the outer circle remains silent. Students in the outer circle are much like scientific observers watching and listening to the conversation of the inner circle. When the text has been fully discussed and the inner circle is finished talking, the outer circle provides feedback on the dialogue that took place. This process alternates with the inner circle students going to the outer circle for the next meeting and vice versa. The length of this process varies depending on the text used for the discussion. The teacher may decide to alternate groups within one meeting, or they may alternate at each separate meeting.<ref name=Copeland /><ref name=Furman>{{cite web|title=Furman: Socratic Seminar|url=http://furman.weebly.com/uploads/5/1/7/6/5176248/socratic_seminar_-_guidance_from_avid.pdf|access-date=17 July 2012|archive-date=14 June 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130614151042/http://furman.weebly.com/uploads/5/1/7/6/5176248/socratic_seminar_-_guidance_from_avid.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>

The most significant difference between this activity and most typical classroom activities involves the role of the teacher. In Socratic seminar, the students lead the discussion and questioning. The teacher's role is to ensure the discussion advances regardless of the particular direction the discussion takes.<ref name=Copeland /><ref name=Furman />

====Various approaches to Socratic seminar====
Teachers use Socratic seminar in different ways. The structure it takes may look different in each classroom. While this is not an exhaustive list, teachers may use one of the following structures to administer Socratic seminar:

# ''Inner/outer circle or fishbowl'': Students need to be arranged in inner and outer circles. The inner circle engages in discussion about the text. The outer circle observes the inner circle, while taking notes. The outer circle shares their [[observations]] and questions the inner circle with guidance from the teacher/facilitator. Students use constructive [[criticism]] as opposed to making judgements. The students on the outside keep track of topics they would like to discuss as part of the debrief. Participants in the outer circle can use an observation checklist or notes form to monitor the participants in the inner circle. These tools will provide structure for listening and give the outside members specific details to discuss later in the seminar.<ref name=Copeland/><ref name=Furman /> The teacher may also sit in the circle but at the same height as the students.<ref name=Chowning>{{cite journal|last=Ting Chowning|first=Jeanne|title=Socratic Seminars in Science Class|journal=[[The Science Teacher]] | publisher = [[National Science Teachers Association]]|date=October 2009|volume=76|issue=7|page=38}}</ref>
# ''Triad'': Students are arranged so that each participant (called a "pilot") in the inner circle has two "co-pilots" sitting behind them on either side. Pilots are the speakers because they are in the inner circle; co-pilots are in the outer circle and only speak during consultation. The seminar proceeds as any other seminar. At a point in the seminar, the [[facilitator]] pauses the discussion and instructs the triad to talk to each other. Conversation will be about topics that need more in-depth discussion or a question posed by the leader. Sometimes triads will be asked by the facilitator to come up with a new question. Any time during a triad conversation, group members can switch seats and one of the co-pilots can sit in the pilot's seat. Only during that time is the switching of seats allowed. This structure allows for students to speak, who may not yet have the confidence to speak in the large group. This type of seminar involves all students instead of just the students in the inner and outer circles.<ref name=Furman />
# ''Simultaneous seminars'': Students are arranged in multiple small groups and placed as far as possible from each other. Following the guidelines of the Socratic seminar, students engage in small group discussions. Simultaneous seminars are typically done with experienced students who need little guidance and can engage in a discussion without assistance from a teacher/facilitator. According to the literature, this type of seminar is beneficial for teachers who want students to explore a variety of texts around a main issue or topic. Each small group may have a different text to read/view and discuss. A larger Socratic seminar can then occur as a discussion about how each text corresponds with one another. Simultaneous Seminars can also be used for a particularly difficult text. Students can work through different issues and key passages from the text.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Gose|first=Michael|title=When Socratic Dialogue is Flagging: Questions and Strategies for Engaging Students|journal=College Teaching|date=January 2009|volume=57|issue=1|page=46|doi=10.3200/CTCH.57.1.45-50|s2cid=144482413}}</ref>

No matter what structure the teacher employs, the basic premise of the seminar/circles is to turn partial control and direction of the classroom over to the students. The seminars encourage students to work together, creating meaning from the text and to stay away from trying to find a correct interpretation. The emphasis is on critical and creative thinking.<ref name=Copeland />

====Text selection====
=====Socratic seminar texts=====
A Socratic seminar text is a tangible document that creates a thought-provoking discussion.<ref name=NPC>{{cite web|title=The Paideia Seminar: active thinking through dialogue. 3.4 Planning step 3: Select text|url=http://www.learnnc.org/lp/editions/paideia/6901|access-date=16 July 2012|archive-date=15 August 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120815013934/http://www.learnnc.org/lp/editions/paideia/6901|url-status=live}}</ref>
The text ought to be appropriate for the participants' current level of intellectual and social development.<ref name=Chorzempa>{{cite journal|last=Chorzempa|first=Barbara|author2=Lapidus, Laurie |title=To Find Yourself, Think For Yourself|journal=Teaching Exceptional Children|date=January 2009|volume=41|issue=3|pages=54–59|doi=10.1177/004005990904100306|s2cid=146880761}}</ref> It provides the anchor for dialogue whereby the [[facilitator]] can bring the participants back to the text if they begin to digress. Furthermore, the seminar text enables the participants to create a level playing field – ensuring that the dialogical tone within the classroom remains consistent and pure to the subject or topic at hand.<ref name=NPC /> Some practitioners argue that "texts" do not have to be confined to printed texts, but can include artifacts such as objects, physical spaces, and the like.

=====Pertinent elements of an effective Socratic text=====
Socratic seminar texts are able to challenge participants' thinking skills by having these characteristics:

# ''Ideas and values'': The text must introduce ideas and values that are complex and difficult to summarize.<ref name=NPC /> Powerful discussions arise from personal connections to abstract ideas and from implications to personal values.
# ''Complexity and challenge'': The text must be rich in ideas and complexity <ref name=Furman /> and open to interpretation.<ref name=Mangrum>{{cite journal|last=Mangrum|first=Jennifer|title=Sharing Practice Through Socratic Seminars|journal=Kappan|date=April 2010|volume=91|issue=7|pages=40–43|doi=10.1177/003172171009100708|s2cid=144053420}}</ref> Ideally it should require multiple readings,<ref name=FHO>{{cite web|title=Facing History and Ourselves: Socratic Seminar|url=http://www.facinghistory.org/resources/strategies/socratic-seminar|access-date=16 July 2012|archive-date=13 July 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120713002529/http://www.facinghistory.org/resources/strategies/socratic-seminar|url-status=live}}</ref> but should be neither far above the participants' intellectual level nor very long.
# ''Relevance to participants' curriculum'': An effective text has identifiable themes that are recognizable and pertinent to the lives of the participants.<ref name=Chorzempa /> Themes in the text should relate to the curriculum.
# ''[[Ambiguity]]'': The text must be approachable from a variety of different perspectives, including perspectives that seem mutually exclusive, thus provoking critical thinking and raising important questions. The absence of right and wrong answers promotes a variety of discussion and encourages individual contributions.<ref name=Furman /><ref name=FHO />

=====Two different ways to select a text=====
Socratic texts can be divided into two main categories:

# Print texts (e.g., short stories, poems, and essays) and non-print texts (e.g. photographs, sculptures, and maps); and
# Subject area, which can draw from print or non-print artifacts. As examples, language arts can be approached through poems, history through written or oral historical speeches, science through policies on environmental issues, math through mathematical proofs, health through nutrition labels, and physical education through fitness guidelines.<ref name=Furman /><ref name=NPC />

====Questioning methods====
Socratic seminars are based upon the interaction of peers. The focus is to explore multiple perspectives on a given issue or topic. [[Socratic questioning]] is used to help students apply the activity to their learning. The [[pedagogy]] of Socratic questions is open-ended, focusing on broad, general ideas rather than specific, factual information.<ref name=Copeland /> The questioning technique emphasizes a level of questioning and thinking where there is no single right answer.

Socratic seminars generally start with an open-ended question proposed either by the leader or by another participant.<ref name=Chorzempa /> There is no designated first speaker; as individuals participate in Socratic dialogue, they gain [[experience]] that enables them to be effective in this role of initial questioner.<ref name=Furman />

The leader keeps the topic focused by asking a variety of questions about the text itself, as well as questions to help clarify positions when arguments become confused. The leader also seeks to coax reluctant participants into the discussion, and to limit contributions from those who tend to dominate.<ref name=Furman /> She or he prompts participants to elaborate on their responses and to build on what others have said. The leader guides participants to deepen, clarify, and paraphrase, and to synthesize a variety of different views.<ref name=Furman />

The participants share the responsibility with the leader to maintain the quality of the Socratic circle. They listen actively to respond effectively to what others have contributed. This teaches the participants to think and speak persuasively using the discussion to support their position.<ref name=Copeland /> Participants must demonstrate respect for different ideas, thoughts and values, and must not interrupt each other.<ref name=Furman />

Questions can be created individually or in small groups.<ref name=Mangrum /> All participants are given the opportunity to take part in the discussion.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Gose|first=Michael|title=When Socratic Dialogue Is Flagging; Questions and Strategies for Engaging Students|journal=College Teaching|year=2009|volume=57|issue=1|pages=45–50|doi=10.3200/CTCH.57.1.45-50|s2cid=144482413}}</ref> Socratic circles specify three types of questions to prepare:

# Opening questions generate discussion at the beginning of the seminar in order to elicit dominant themes.<ref name=Furman /><ref name=Mangrum />
# Guiding questions help deepen and elaborate the discussion, keeping contributions on topic and encouraging a positive atmosphere and consideration for others.
# Closing questions lead participants to summarize their thoughts and learning<ref name=Furman /> and personalize what they've discussed.<ref name=Mangrum />

=== Challenges and disadvantages ===
Scholars such as [[Peter Boghossian]] suggest that although the method improves creative and critical thinking, there is a flip side to the method. He states that the teachers who use this method wait for the students to make mistakes, thus creating negative feelings in the class, exposing the student to possible ridicule and humiliation.<ref name="researchgate"/>

Some have countered this thought by stating that the humiliation and ridicule is not caused by the method, rather it is due to the lack of knowledge of the student. Boghossian mentions that even though the questions may be perplexing, they are not originally meant for it, in fact such questions provoke the students and can be countered by employing counterexamples.<ref name="researchgate">{{Cite journal|last1=Delic |last2=Becirovic|first1=Haris |first2=Senad|date=November 2016|title=Socratic Method as an Approach to Teaching|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/309634848|journal= European Researcher|volume=111|issue=10 |pages=511–517|via=ResearchGate |doi=10.13187/er.2016.111.511 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230519235630/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/309634848_Socratic_Method_as_an_Approach_to_Teaching |archive-date= May 19, 2023 }}</ref>