Editing Soddo language (section)

==Grammar==
{{unreferenced section|date=April 2024}}

===Noun===
As in most Ethiopian languages, noun [[Grammatical modifier|qualifier]]s generally follow the noun.

The [[definite article]] is expressed by the [[suffix]] ''-i'', e.g.: ''goš'' "boy" > ''goš-i'' "the boy"; ''ätit'' "sister" > ''ätiti'' "the sister"; ''bayyočč'' "children" > ''bayyočč-i''.  If the noun ends in ''-a'' or ''-ä'', it normally loses this [[vowel]] when ''-i'' is suffixed: ''angačča'' "cat" > ''angačč-i'' "the cat".  A noun ending in ''-i'' usually stays the same: ''abi'' "(the) father, proprietor".  A noun ending in ''-e, -o, -u'' adds a ''y'' before the suffix: ''ge'' "house" > ''geʸi'' "the house"; ''wälläho'' "neighbor" > ''wällähoʸi'' "the neighbor".  If the noun has a qualifier, the article is used with the first element: ''maläk' ge'' "big house" > ''maläk'-i ge'' "the big house"; ''yä-šum-i ge'' "the house of the official" (lit. "of-official-the house"); ''yä-mät't'-i məss'' "the man who came" (lit. "who-came-the man".)

There is no real [[indefinite article]], though indefiniteness can be expressed by preposing the word ''attə'' or ''k'una'', meaning "one".

Nouns have two [[grammatical gender|gender]]s, masculine and feminine, which affect [[verb]] concord.

Nouns which are definite objects ([[direct object|direct]] or [[indirect object|indirect]]) are both marked with the prefix ''yä-'' or ''nä-'': e.g. ''yä-geʸi ažžo'' "he saw the house"; ''yä-zämmihʷan abännət'' "he gave it to his brother" (lit. "to-his-brother he-gave-him").  [[Direct object]]s may additionally be marked by adding the object suffix pronouns to the verb: e.g. ''yabiddi täšakkunnət'' "I asked my father" (lit. "my-father-obj. I-asked-him".)

A possessed noun is marked by the prefix ''yä-'', and the possessor precedes the possessed: ''yä-šum-i ge'' "the house of the official" (lit. "of-official-the house").  If the possessed noun has a preposition prefixed to it, this ''yä-'' is omitted: ''babiddi färäz'' rather than *''bä-yä-abiddi färäz'' for "on my father's horse".

===Pronoun===

====Personal pronoun====
{| class="wikitable"
! English
! Standalone form
! [[Possessive pronouns|Possessive]] [[suffix]]<br>(consonant-final nouns)
! [[Possessive pronouns|Possessive]] [[suffix]]<br>(vowel-final nouns)
|-
| I
| ''ädi''
| ''-əddi''
| ''-ddi''
|-
| you (m. sg.)
| ''dähä''
| ''-dä''
| ''-dä''
|-
| you (f. sg.)
| ''däš''
| ''-däš''
| ''-däš''
|-
| he
| ''kʷa''
| ''-äw'', ''-kʷan''
| ''-w'', ''-hʷan''
|-
| she
| ''kʸa''
| ''-ki''
| ''-hi''
|-
| we
| ''əñña''
| ''-əñña''
| ''-ñña''
|-
| you (m. pl.)
| ''dähəm''
| ''-dähəm''
| ''-dähəm''
|-
| you (f. pl.)
| ''dähma''
| ''-dähma''
| ''-dähma''
|-
| they (m.)
| ''kənnäm''
| ''-kənnäm''
| ''-hənnäm''
|-
| they (f.)
| ''kənnäma''
| ''-kənnäm''
| ''-hənnäm''
|}

Possessives can also be formed by simply adding ''yä-'' to the standalone pronouns, e.g.: ''yädähəm t'əb'' "your clan".

Reflexive pronouns are formed by ''äras-'', ''gubba-'', ''k'um-'' plus the possessive suffixes, e.g. ''ädi äras-əddi mät'afi t'afkunnət'' "I myself wrote the book".

===Demonstrative pronoun===

Proximal: ''zi'' "this, these"; ''zini'' "this one".  E.g.: ''zi məss'' "this man", ''zi məšt'' "this woman", ''zi säbočč'' "these men".

Distal: ''za'' "that, those, that one, those ones"; ''zani'' "that one there".  E.g. ''tä-za məss goy mät't'ahi'' "I came with that man".

====Interrogative pronoun====

*''ma'' "who?" (''man'' before the [[copula (linguistics)|copula]]): ''man mät't'a?'' "who came?"
*''yäma'' "whose?"
* ''mən'' "what?"; ''yämən'' "why?"
* ''yitta'', ''yittat'' "which?" E.g. ''yitta bayy mät't'am'' "which child came?"
* ''yittani'' "which one?"

====Indefinite pronoun====

* ''(yähonä) säb'' "someone, somebody"
* ''mannəm (säb)'' "any(one)" ("no one" with negative verb)
* ''attəm'' "any" (="no one, nothing" with negative verb); ''attəmu'' "no one" (as pronoun)
* ''lela (säb)'' "other"
* ''yäk'irrä k'äy'' "other" (lit. "remaining thing")
* ''attə'' "a certain"
* ''ləyyu'' "different"
* ''k'una'', ''zam'', ''zəč'ə'' "same"
* ''äbälo'' (f. ''äbälit'') "so-and-so"
* ''zihom'' "such"

''kulləm'' = "all" (placed before or after the noun); ''kulləm-u'', ''bä-mollaw'' = "whole".  ''yät'oma'' = "only, alone".  "Each, every" is expressed by noun [[reduplication]].

===Copula and existential verbs===

The copula (positive and negative) is irregular in the [[present tense]]:

{| class="wikitable"
! English
! be
! not be
|-
| I am
| ''näw(h)''
| ''ädäbukk''
|-
| you (m. sg.) are
| ''nähä''
| ''ädäbəkkä''
|-
| you (f. sg.) are
| ''näš''
| ''ädäbəčč''
|-
| he is
| ''-n, -ən'' (after a consonant)
| ''ädäbəll''
|-
| she is
| ''na''
| ''ädäbəlla''
|-
| we are
| ''nänä''
| ''ädäbəllänä''
|-
| you (m. pl.) are
| ''nähəm''
| ''ädäbəkkəm''
|-
| you (f. pl.) are
| ''nähma''
| ''ädäbəkkəma''
|-
| they (m.) are
| ''näm''
| ''ädäbəlläm''
|-
| they (f.) are
| ''näma''
| ''ädäbəäma''
|}

Example: ''zämmidi nähä'' "you are my brother".

The past tense ("he was", etc.) is expressed by the verb ''näbbär'' conjugated regularly in the perfect; "he was not" etc. is with ''annäbär''.  The future tense is expressed by the imperfect of ''hono'': ''yəhonu'' "he will be", etc.  The negative future tense is likewise expressed by ''tihon''.  The present copula  in subordinate clauses is expressed by the subordinate perfect of ''honä'', e.g.: ''däffär yähonä tädi-goy yalfu'' "he who is courageous will go with me.

"It is he", etc. can be expressed by adding an element ''-tt'' between the pronoun and the copula: e.g. ''kʷa-ttə-n'' "it is he".

The existential verb "be at", "exist" in the present is:

{| class="wikitable"
! English
! be at/there
! not be at/there
|-
| I am
| ''yinähi''
| ''yellähu''
|-
| you (m. sg.) are
| ''yinəho''
| ''yellähä''
|-
| you (f. sg.) are
| ''yinäšin''
| ''yelläš''
|-
| he is
| ''yino''
| ''yellä''
|-
| she is
| ''yinätti''
| ''yellät''
|-
| we are
| ''yinäno''
| ''yellänä''
|-
| you (m. pl.) are
| ''yinähmun''
| ''yellähəm''
|-
| you (f. pl.) are
| ''yinähman''
| ''yellähma''
|-
| they (m.) are
| ''yinämun''
| ''yelləm''
|-
| they (f.) are
| ''yinäman''
| ''yelləma''
|}

In the past and future, it is expressed just like the copula, with ''näbbärä'' and ''honä''.  In subordinate clauses the present is expressed with ''-allä'' conjugated in the perfect (negative ''-lellä''), e.g.: ''bämeda yalləmi säbočč araš näm'' "the people who are in the field are farmers".

The possessive verb "he has" etc. is expressed with the existential verb ''yino'' "it is" (agreeing with the object possessed) plus object suffix pronouns (i.e. "it is to him" etc.)

===Verbs===
A Soddo verb may have anywhere from one to four consonants, or may be a compound with ''balo'' "say" (e.g. ''bək'k' balo'' "appear".)  In the former case, they fall into three "[[Grammatical conjugation|conjugation]]s" differing in their vowels and in gemination of the imperfect, illustrated for a three-consonant verb:
* ''säbbäro'', imperfect ''yəsäbru'' ("break")
* ''tikkälo'', imperfect ''yətikkəlu''
* ''č'affäro'', imperfect ''yəč'affəru''

Derived stems can be formed in several ways:
* reduplicative: e.g. ''gäddälo'' "kill" > ''gədaddälo''.  This form has a wide variety of meanings, mostly intensifying the verb in some way.
* [[Passive voice|passive]]/reflexive/[[intransitive]] ''tä-'' prefix: e.g. ''käffälo'' "pay" > ''tä-käffälo'' "be paid".  A [[Reciprocal (grammar)|reciprocal]] action can be expressed by this prefix attached to a [[transitive verb]] with the vowel ''a'' after the first radical, or a reduplicative form, e.g. ''tä-gäddäl-mun'' or ''tä-gdaddäl-mun'' "they killed each other".
* [[causative]] or transitive of [[intransitive verb]]s ''a-'': e.g. ''säkkäro'' "be drunk" > ''a-säkkäro'' "get someone drunk"; ''näddädo'' "burn (intr.)" > ''a-näddädo'' "burn (tr.)".
* [[causative]] of transitive or [[Passive voice|passive]] verbs ''at-'' (+ ''-i-''): e.g. ''käddäno'' "cover" > ''at-kiddäno'' "cause to cover" or "cause to be covered".  Added to the ''-a-'' form, it expresses reciprocity and [[adjutative]] (helping): ''atgaddälo'' "cause to kill one other" or help to kill".
* Some verbs are formed with initial ''ən-'' or ''tän-''; the only derived stem from these is the ''a-'' stem, with ''a-'' replacing ''ə-'' or ''tä-''.  E.g. ''ənkrättäto'' "be bent" > ''ankrättäto'' "bend".

There are two tenses/aspects, [[perfective]] (past) and [[imperfective]] (non-past); each has distinct forms for main versus [[subordinate clause]]s, and positive versus negative.  There are also distinct [[Jussive mood|jussive]], [[Imperative mood|imperative]], and [[Impersonal verb|impersonal]] forms.

====Conjugations====

=====Perfect=====
{| class="wikitable"
! English
! main clause
! subordinate clause
! relative clause
! subordinate with ''-m''
|-
| I measured
| ''säffär-ki''
| ''säffär-kʷ''
| ''yä-säffär-k-i''
| ''säffär-kum''
|-
| you (m. sg.) measured
| ''säffär-ko''
| ''säffär-kä''
| ''yä-säffär-k-i''
| ''säffär-käm''
|-
| you (f. sg.) measured
| ''säffär-šin''
| ''säffär-š''
| ''yä-säffär-š-i''
| ''säffär-šəm''
|-
| he measured
| ''säffär-o''
| ''säffär-ä''
| ''yä-säffär-i''
| ''säffär-äm''
|-
| she measured
| ''säffär-ätti''
| ''säffär-ät''
| ''yä-säffär-ätt-i''
| ''säffär-ättəm''
|-
| we measured
| ''säffär-no''
| ''säffär-nä''
| ''yä-säffär-n-i''
| ''säffär-näm''
|-
| you (m. pl.) measured
| ''säffär-kəmun''
| ''säffär-kəmu''
| ''yä-säffär-kəm-i''
| ''säffär-kəmum''
|-
| you (f. pl.) measured
| ''säffär-kəman''
| ''säffär-kəma''
| ''yä-säffär-kəma-yi''
| ''säffär-kəmam''
|-
| they (m.) measured
| ''säffär-mun''
| ''säffär-m''
| ''yä-säffär-m-i''
| ''säffär-mum''
|-
| they (f.) measured
| ''säffär-man''
| ''säffär-ma''
| ''yä-säffär-ma-yi''
| ''säffär-mam''
|}

The form with suffixed ''-m'' is used in subordinate clauses to connect verbs not otherwise connected, in a way analogous to [[Japanese language|Japanese]] ''-te''; it can be translated as "and", as a [[gerund]], or as a [[resultative]].  The perfect in ''-m'' followed by ''näbbär'' forms the [[pluperfect]].

The negative perfect is formed by prefixing ''al-'', with vowel change; for the conjugations mentioned above, the resulting forms are ''al-säfärä'', ''al-täkkälä'', and ''al-č'afärä''.

Examples: ''ge aräššo'' "he built a house"; ''banätäw k'ən awänna-m bämida tonnaw'' "having put butter on the top of his head, he sat outside".

=====Imperfect=====
{| class="wikitable"
! English
! main clause
! subordinate clause
|-
| I advance
| ''äbädru''
| ''äbädər''
|-
| you (m. sg.) advance
| ''təbädru''
| ''təbädər''
|-
| you (f. sg.) advance
| ''təbädri''
| ''təbʸedər''
|-
| he advances
| ''yəbädru''
| ''yəbädər''
|-
| she advances
| ''təbädri''
| ''təbädər''
|-
| we advance
| ''(ən)nəbädru''
| ''(ən)nəbädər''
|-
| you (m. pl.) advance
| ''təbädrəmun''
| ''təbädrəm''
|-
| you (f. pl.) advance
| ''təbädrəman''
| ''təbädrəma''
|-
| they (m.) advance
| ''yəbädrəmun''
| ''yəbädrəm''
|-
| they (f.) advance
| ''yəbädrəman''
| ''yəbädrəma''
|}

Like the perfect, the subordinate forms can take the suffix ''-m'' to express a series of non-past actions.  This can be combined with ''näbbär'' to express a habitual past action.

Examples: ''ahoññ gäbäya nalfu'' "today we shall go to the market"; ''yəgädəl məss'' "the man who kills"; ''mas tənäsa-m yibara wawt'a tək'ärsi'' "she picks up the sleeping mats and begins to remove the dung."

It can be augmented by ''-ən'', with no obvious change in meaning.

{| class="wikitable"
! English
! negative main clause
! negative subordinate clause
|-
| I do not begin
| ''täk'ärs''
| ''annək'ärs''
|-
| you (m. sg.) do not begin
| ''təttək'ärs''
| ''attək'ärs''
|-
| you (f. sg.) do not begin
| ''təttək'erš''
| ''attək'erš''
|-
| he does not begin
| ''tik'ärs''
| ''ayk'ärs''
|-
| she does not begin
| ''təttək'ärs''
| ''attək'ärs''
|-
| we do not begin
| ''tənnək'ärs''
| ''annək'ärs''
|-
| you (m. pl.) begin
| ''təttək'ärsəm''
| ''attək'ärsəm''
|-
| you (f. pl.) advance
| ''təttək'ärsəma''
| ''attək'ärsəma''
|-
| they (m.) advance
| ''tik'ärsəm''
| ''ayk'ärsəm''
|-
| they (f.) advance
| ''tik'ärsəma''
| ''ayk'ärsəma''
|}

Examples: ''ahoññ yəmät'a timäsəl'' "it does not seem that he will come today"; ''ädahʷan t-aykäfəl alläfo'' "he left without paying his debt".

=====Jussive and Imperative=====
{| class="wikitable" 
|-
! colspan="3" | 
! conjugation A
! conjugation B
! conjugation C
|-
! rowspan="2" | 1st<br />person
! colspan="2" | {{small|singular}}
| {{lang|gru|näsfər}}
| {{lang|gru|näšäkkət}}
| {{lang|gru|nägalb}}
|-
! colspan="2" | {{small|plural}}
| {{lang|gru|(ən)nəsfär}}
| {{lang|gru|nəšäkkət}}
| {{lang|gru|nəgalb}}
|-
! rowspan="4" | 2nd<br />person
! rowspan="2" | {{small|singular}}
! m.
| {{lang|gru|səfär}}
| {{lang|gru|šäkkət}}
| {{lang|gru|galb}}
|-
! f.
| {{lang|gru|səfer}}
| {{lang|gru|šäkkič}}
| {{lang|gru|galʸib}}
|-
! rowspan="2" | {{small|plural}}
! m.
| {{lang|gru|səfärəm}}
| {{lang|gru|šäkkətəm}}
| {{lang|gru|galbəm}}
|-
! f.
| {{lang|gru|səfärma}}
| {{lang|gru|šäkkətma}}
| {{lang|gru|galbəma}}
|-
! rowspan="4" | 3rd<br />person
! rowspan="2" | {{small|singular}}
! m.
| {{lang|gru|yesfər, yäsfər}}
| {{lang|gru|yešäkkət}}
| {{lang|gru|yegalb}}
|-
! f.
| {{lang|gru|tesfər}}
| {{lang|gru|tešäkkət}}
| {{lang|gru|tegalb}}
|-
! rowspan="2" | {{small|plural}}
! m.
| {{lang|gru|yesfərəm}}
| {{lang|gru|yešäkkətəm}}
| {{lang|gru|yegalbəm}}
|-
! f.
| {{lang|gru|yesfərma}}
| {{lang|gru|yešäkkətma}}
| {{lang|gru|yegalbəma}}
|}

These are negated by the prefix ''ay-'': ''ayəsfär'', ''ayšäkkət'', ''aygalb''.  The 2nd person forms then change to conform to the others: ''attəsfär'', ''attəsfer'', ''attəsfärəm'', ''attəsfärma''.

E.g.:
: {{lang|gru|yä-wäzälawan-hom yewsəd}} "let him take according to his work"
: {{lang|gru|yäsäb waga attəlgäd}} "don't touch someone's property"
: {{lang|gru|ärəf-əm tona}} "rest and sit down" (sit down quietly)