Editing Spanish language (section)

== History ==
{{Main|History of the Spanish language}}

[[File:CartulariosValpuesta.jpg|right|thumb|The Visigothic [[Cartularies of Valpuesta]], written in a late form of Latin, were declared in 2010 by the Royal Spanish Academy as the record of the earliest words written in Castilian, predating those of the [[Glosas Emilianenses]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.euskonews.com/udalak/valpuesta/cartularioshistoria.htm|title=cartularioshistoria|website=www.euskonews.com|access-date=22 September 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160402124945/http://www.euskonews.com/udalak/valpuesta/cartularioshistoria.htm|archive-date=2 April 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref>]]

Like the other [[Romance languages]], the Spanish language evolved from [[Vulgar Latin]], which was brought to the [[Iberian Peninsula]] by the [[Roman Republic|Romans]] during the [[Second Punic War]], beginning in 210 BC. Several pre-Roman languages (also called [[Paleohispanic languages]])—some distantly related to Latin as [[Indo-European languages]], and some that are not related at all—were previously spoken in the Iberian Peninsula. These languages included [[Proto-Basque language|Proto-Basque]], [[Iberian language|Iberian]], [[Lusitanian language|Lusitanian]], [[Celtiberian language|Celtiberian]] and [[Gallaecian language|Gallaecian]].

The first documents to show traces of what is today regarded as the precursor of modern Spanish are from the 9th century. Throughout the Middle Ages and into the [[modern era]], the most important [[Language contact|influence]]s on the Spanish lexicon came from neighboring [[Romance languages]]—[[Andalusi Romance|Mozarabic]] ([[Andalusi Romance]]), [[Navarro-Aragonese]], [[Leonese language|Leonese]], [[Catalan language|Catalan/Valencian]], [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]], [[Galician language|Galician]], [[Occitan language|Occitan]], and later, [[French language|French]] and [[Italian language|Italian]]. Spanish also [[Loanword|borrowed]] a considerable number of words from [[Andalusi Arabic]], as well as smaller amounts from [[Basque language|Basque]] and the Germanic [[Gothic language]] through the period of [[Visigoths|Visigoth]] rule in Iberia. In addition, many more words were borrowed from [[Latin]] through the influence of written language and the liturgical language of the Church. The loanwords were taken from both [[Classical Latin]] and [[Renaissance Latin]], the form of Latin in use at that time.

According to the theories of [[Ramón Menéndez Pidal]], local [[sociolect]]s of Vulgar Latin evolved into Spanish, in the north of Iberia, in an area centered in the city of [[Burgos]], and this dialect was later brought to the city of [[Toledo, Spain|Toledo]], where the written standard of Spanish was first developed, in the 13th century.<ref name="Penny1p16">{{Harvcoltxt|Penny|2000|p=16}}</ref> In this formative stage, Spanish developed a strongly differing variant from its close cousin, [[Leonese language|Leonese]], and, according to some authors, was distinguished by a heavy Basque influence (see [[Iberian Romance languages]]). This distinctive dialect spread to southern Spain with the advance of the {{lang|es|[[Reconquista]]}}, and meanwhile gathered a sizable lexical influence from the [[Arabic]] of [[Al-Andalus]], much of it indirectly, through the Romance [[Andalusi Romance|Mozarabic dialects]] (some 4,000 [[Arabic]]-derived words, make up around 8% of the language today).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1O29-SPANISH.html|title=Concise Oxford Companion to the English Language|publisher=Oxford University Press|access-date=24 July 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080925062202/http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1O29-SPANISH.html|archive-date=25 September 2008|url-status=live}}</ref> The written standard for this new language was developed in the cities of [[Toledo, Spain|Toledo]], in the 13th to 16th centuries, and [[Madrid]], from the 1570s.<ref name="Penny1p16" />

The development of the [[Spanish phonology|Spanish sound system]] from that of [[Vulgar Latin]] exhibits most of the changes that are typical of [[Western Romance languages]], including [[lenition]] of intervocalic consonants (thus Latin {{lang|la|vīta}} > Spanish {{lang|es|vida}}). The [[Vowel breaking|diphthongization]] of Latin stressed short {{Lang|la|e}} and {{Lang|la|o}}—which occurred in [[Syllable|open syllables]] in French and Italian, but not at all in Catalan or Portuguese—is found in both open and closed syllables in Spanish, as shown in the following table:
<div style="overflow: auto;">
<!-- The words in each cell are tagged with the first language whose column intersects the cell. -->
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
! Latin || Spanish || Ladino || Aragonese || Asturian || Galician || Portuguese || Catalan || Gascon / Occitan || French || Sardinian || Italian || Romanian || |English
|-
| {{smallcaps|petra}} || colspan="4" | {{lang|es|p'''ie'''dra}} || colspan="3" | {{lang|gl|pedra}} || {{lang|oc|pedra}}, {{lang|oc|pèira}} || {{lang|fr|p'''ie'''rre}} ||''pedra'', {{lang|sc|perda}}||{{lang|it|p'''ie'''tra}} || {{lang|ro|p'''ia'''tră}} || 'stone'
|-
| {{smallcaps|terra}} || colspan="4" | {{lang|es|t'''ie'''rra}} || colspan="3" | {{lang|gl|terra}} || {{lang|oc|tèrra}} || {{lang|fr|terre}} || colspan="2" | {{lang|sc|terra}} || {{lang|ro|țară}} || 'land'
|-
| {{smallcaps|moritur}} || colspan="3" | {{lang|es|m'''ue'''re}} || {{lang|ast|m'''ue'''rre}} || colspan="2" | {{lang|gl|morre}} || {{lang|ca|mor}} || {{lang|oc|morís}} || {{lang|fr|m'''eu'''rt}} || {{lang|sc|mòrit}} || {{lang|it|m'''uo'''re}} || {{lang|ro|m'''oa'''re}} || 'dies (v.)'
|-
| {{smallcaps|mortem}} || colspan="4" | {{lang|es|m'''ue'''rte}} || colspan="2" | {{lang|ast|morte}} || {{lang|ca|mort}} || {{lang|oc|mòrt}} || {{lang|fr|mort}} ||''morte, morti''||{{lang|it|morte}} || {{lang|ro|m'''oa'''rte}} || 'death'
|}</div>
[[File:Linguistic map Southwestern Europe.gif|thumb|Chronological map showing linguistic evolution in southwest Europe]]
Spanish is marked by [[Palatalization (sound change)|palatalization]] of the Latin double consonants ([[geminate]]s) {{lang|la|nn}} and {{lang|la|ll}} (thus Latin
{{lang|la|annum}} > Spanish {{lang|es|año}}, and Latin {{lang|la|anellum}} > Spanish
{{lang|es|anillo}}).

The consonant written {{lang|la|u}} or {{lang|la|v}} in Latin and pronounced {{IPA|[w]}} in Classical Latin had probably "[[Fortition|fortified]]" to a bilabial fricative {{IPA|/β/}} in Vulgar Latin. In early Spanish (but not in Catalan or Portuguese) it merged with the consonant written ''b'' (a bilabial with plosive and fricative allophones). In modern Spanish, there is [[betacism|no difference]] between the pronunciation of orthographic {{lang|es|b}} and {{lang|es|v}}.

Typical of Spanish (as also of neighboring [[Gascon language|Gascon]] extending as far north as the [[Gironde estuary]], and found in a small area of [[Calabria]]), attributed by some scholars to a Basque [[Substrata (linguistics)|substratum]] was the mutation of Latin initial {{lang|la|f}} into {{lang|es|h-}} whenever it was followed by a vowel that did not diphthongize. The {{lang|es|h-}}, still preserved in spelling, is now silent in most varieties of the language, although in some Andalusian and Caribbean dialects, it is still aspirated in some words. Because of borrowings from Latin and neighboring Romance languages, there are many {{lang|es|f}}-/{{lang|es|h}}- [[Doublet (linguistics)|doublet]]s in modern Spanish: {{lang|es|Fernando}} and {{lang|es|Hernando}} (both Spanish for "Ferdinand"), {{lang|es|ferrero}} and {{lang|es|herrero}} (both Spanish for "smith"), {{lang|es|fierro}} and {{lang|es|hierro}} (both Spanish for "iron"), and {{lang|es|fondo}} and {{lang|es|hondo}} (both words pertaining to depth in Spanish, though {{lang|es|fondo}} means "bottom", while {{lang|es|hondo}} means "deep"); additionally, {{lang|es|hacer}} ("to make") is [[cognate]] to the root word of {{lang|es|satisfacer}} ("to satisfy"), and {{lang|es|hecho}} ("made") is similarly cognate to the root word of {{lang|es|satisfecho}} ("satisfied").

Compare the examples in the following table:
<div style="overflow: auto;">
<!-- The words in each cell are tagged with the first language whose column intersects the cell. -->
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
! Latin || Spanish || Ladino || Aragonese || Asturian || Galician || Portuguese || Catalan || Gascon / Occitan || French || Sardinian || Italian || Romanian || English
|-
| {{smallcaps|filium}} || {{lang|es|'''h'''ijo}} || {{lang|lad|fijo}} (or {{lang|lad|hijo}}) || {{lang|an|fillo}} || {{lang|ast|fíu}} || {{lang|gl|fillo}} || {{lang|pt|filho}} || {{lang|ca|fill}} || {{lang|oc|filh}}, {{lang|oc|'''h'''ilh}} || {{lang|fr|fils}} ||''fizu, fìgiu, fillu''||{{lang|it|figlio}} || {{lang|ro|fiu}} || 'son'
|-
| {{smallcaps|facere}} || {{lang|es|'''h'''acer}} || {{lang|lad|fazer}} || {{lang|an|fer}} || colspan="2" | {{lang|ast|facer}} || {{lang|pt|fazer}} || {{lang|ca|fer}} || {{lang|oc|far}}, {{lang|oc|faire}}, {{lang|oc|'''h'''ar}} (or {{lang|oc|'''h'''èr}}) || {{lang|fr|faire}} ||''fàghere, fàere, {{lang|sc|fàiri}}''||{{lang|it|fare}} || {{lang|ro|a face}} || 'to do'
|-
| {{smallcaps|febrem}} || colspan="4" | {{lang|es|fiebre}} ''(calentura)''|| colspan="3" |{{lang|gl|febre}} || {{lang|oc|fèbre}}, {{lang|oc|frèbe}}, {{lang|oc|'''h'''rèbe}} (or<br />{{lang|oc|'''h'''erèbe}}) || {{lang|fr|fièvre}} ||{{lang|sc|calentura}}||{{lang|it|febbre}} || {{lang|ro|febră}} || 'fever'
|-
| {{smallcaps|focum}} || colspan="3" | {{lang|es|fuego}} || {{lang|ast|fueu}} || colspan="2" | {{lang|gl|fogo}} || {{lang|ca|foc}} || {{lang|oc|fuòc}}, {{lang|oc|fòc}}, {{lang|oc|'''h'''uèc}} || {{lang|fr|feu}} || {{lang|sc|fogu}} || {{lang|it|fuoco}} || {{lang|ro|foc}} || 'fire'
|}</div>
Some [[consonant cluster]]s of Latin also produced characteristically different results in these languages, as shown in the examples in the following table:
<div style="overflow: auto;">
<!-- The words in each cell are tagged with the first language whose column intersects the cell. -->
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
! Latin || Spanish || Ladino || Aragonese || Asturian || Galician || Portuguese || Catalan || Gascon / Occitan || French || Sardinian || Italian || Romanian || English
|-
| {{smallcaps|'''cl'''āvem}} || {{lang|es|'''ll'''ave}} || {{lang|lad|clave}} || {{lang|an|clau}} || {{lang|ast|'''ll'''ave}} || {{lang|gl|chave}} || {{lang|pt|chave}} || colspan="2" | {{lang|ca|clau}} || {{lang|fr|clé}} ||''giae, crae,'' {{lang|sc|crai}}||{{lang|it|chiave}} || {{lang|ro|cheie}} || 'key'
|-
| {{smallcaps|'''fl'''amma}} || {{lang|es|'''ll'''ama}} || colspan="2" | {{lang|lad|'''fl'''ama}} || {{lang|ast|chama}} || colspan="2" | {{lang|gl|chama}}, {{lang|gl|flama}} || colspan="2" | {{lang|ca|flama}} || {{lang|fr|flamme}} || {{lang|sc|framma}} || {{lang|it|fiamma}} || {{lang|ro|flamă}} || 'flame'
|-
| {{smallcaps|'''pl'''ēnum}} || {{lang|es|'''ll'''eno}} || {{lang|lad|pleno}} || {{lang|an|plen}} || {{lang|ast|'''ll'''enu}} || {{lang|gl|cheo}} || {{lang|pt|cheio}}, {{lang|pt|pleno}} || {{lang|ca|ple}} || {{lang|oc|plen}} || {{lang|fr|plein}} || {{lang|sc|prenu}} || {{lang|it|pieno}} || {{lang|ro|plin}} || 'plenty, full'
|-
| {{smallcaps|o'''ct'''ō}} || colspan="2" | {{lang|es|o'''ch'''o}} || {{lang|an|güeito}} || {{lang|ast|o'''ch'''o}}, {{lang|ast|oito}} || {{lang|gl|oito}} || {{lang|pt|oito}} ({{lang|pt|oi'''t'''o}}) || {{lang|ca|vuit}}, {{lang|ca|huit}} || {{lang|oc|uè'''ch'''}}, {{lang|oc|uò'''ch'''}}, {{lang|oc|uèit}} || {{lang|fr|huit}} || {{lang|sc|oto}}||{{lang|it|otto}} || {{lang|ro|opt}} || 'eight'
|-
| {{smallcaps|mu'''lt'''um}} || {{lang|es|mu'''ch'''o}}<br />{{lang|es|mu'''y'''}} || {{lang|lad|mu'''nch'''o}}<br />{{lang|lad|mu'''y'''}} || {{lang|an|muito}}<br />{{lang|an|mu'''i'''}} || {{lang|ast|mu'''nch'''u}}<br />{{lang|ast|mu'''i'''}} || {{lang|gl|moito}}<br />{{lang|gl|mo'''i'''}} ||''muito''  ||{{lang|ca|molt}} || {{lang|oc|molt}}&nbsp;(arch.) ||{{lang|fr|très}}, {{lang|fr|beaucoup}}, {{lang|fr|moult}}
|{{lang|sc|meda}}||{{lang|it|molto}} || {{lang|ro|mult}} || 'much,<br />very,<br />many'
|}</div>
[[File:Juan de Zúñiga dibujo con orla (cropped).jpg|thumb|upright|[[Antonio de Nebrija]], author of {{lang|es|[[Gramática de la lengua castellana]]}}, the first grammar of a modern European language<ref>{{cite news |url=http://books.guardian.co.uk/review/story/0,12084,1105510,00.html |title=Harold Bloom on Don Quixote, the first modern novel &#124; Books &#124; The Guardian |publisher=Books.guardian.co.uk |date=12 December 2003 |access-date=18 July 2009 |location=London |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080614054652/http://books.guardian.co.uk/review/story/0,12084,1105510,00.html |archive-date=14 June 2008 |url-status=dead}}</ref>]]

In the 15th and 16th centuries, Spanish underwent a dramatic change in the pronunciation of its [[sibilant consonants]], known in Spanish as the {{lang|es|[[:es:Reajuste de las sibilantes del idioma español|reajuste de las sibilantes]]}}, which resulted in the distinctive [[Velar consonant|velar]] {{IPA|[x]}} pronunciation of the letter {{angle bracket|j}} and—in a large part of Spain—the characteristic [[Interdental consonant|interdental]] {{IPA|[θ]}} ("th-sound") for the letter {{angle bracket|z}} (and for {{angle bracket|c}} before {{angle bracket|e}} or {{angle bracket|i}}). See [[History of Spanish#Modern development of the Old Spanish sibilants|History of Spanish (Modern development of the Old Spanish sibilants)]] for details.

The {{lang|es|[[Gramática de la lengua castellana]]}}, written in [[Salamanca]] in 1492 by [[Antonio de Nebrija|Elio Antonio de Nebrija]], was the first grammar written for a modern European language.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/Spanish_language.aspx#1O29-SPANISH |title=Spanish Language Facts |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia.com |access-date=6 November 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110522190202/http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/Spanish_language.aspx#1O29-SPANISH |archive-date=22 May 2011 |url-status=live}}</ref> According to a popular anecdote, when Nebrija presented it to [[Isabella I of Castile|Queen Isabella I]], she asked him what was the use of such a work, and he answered that language is the instrument of empire.<ref>{{cite book |last=Crow |first=John A. |title=Spain: the root and the flower |page=151 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g2NKy8QCxw4C&q=Nebrija+first+spanish+grammar+Isabel&pg=PA151 |year=2005 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-24496-2 |access-date=28 October 2020 |archive-date=17 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210817150949/https://books.google.com/books?id=g2NKy8QCxw4C&q=Nebrija+first+spanish+grammar+Isabel&pg=PA151 |url-status=live}}</ref> In his introduction to the grammar, dated 18 August 1492, Nebrija wrote that "... language was always the companion of empire."<ref>{{cite book |last=Thomas |first=Hugh |title=Rivers of Gold: the rise of the Spanish empire, from Columbus to Magellan |page=78 |year=2005 |publisher=Random House Inc. |isbn=978-0-8129-7055-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=b38f7b1WmOwC&q=Nebrija+first+spanish+grammar+Isabel&pg=PA78 |access-date=28 October 2020 |archive-date=16 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210816174720/https://books.google.com/books?id=b38f7b1WmOwC&q=Nebrija+first+spanish+grammar+Isabel&pg=PA78 |url-status=live}}</ref>

From the 16th century onwards, the language was taken to the Spanish-discovered [[Americas|America]] and the [[Spanish East Indies]] via [[Spanish colonization of the Americas|Spanish colonization of America]]. [[Miguel de Cervantes]], author of ''[[Don Quixote]]'', is such a well-known reference in the world that Spanish is often called {{lang|es|la lengua de Cervantes}} ("the language of Cervantes").<ref>{{cite web|title=La lengua de Cervantes |language=es |url=http://www.cepc.es/rap/Publicaciones/Revistas/2/REP_031-032_288.pdf |publisher=Ministerio de la Presidencia de España |access-date=24 August 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081003083955/http://www.cepc.es/rap/Publicaciones/Revistas/2/REP_031-032_288.pdf |archive-date=3 October 2008}}</ref>

In the 20th century, Spanish was introduced to [[Equatorial Guinea]] and the [[Western Sahara]], and to areas of the United States that had not been part of the Spanish Empire, such as [[Spanish Harlem]] in [[New York City]]. For details on borrowed words and other external influences upon Spanish, see [[Influences on the Spanish language]].