Editing Tapioca (section)

==Uses==
{{see also|Cassava#Uses|Cassava-based dishes}}
{{More citations needed|section|date=July 2021}}

===Nutrition===
[[File:Spicy and Non Spicy Tapioca Chips.jpeg|thumb|Spicy and non-spicy [[tapioca chips]]]]
Dried tapioca pearls are 11% water and 89% [[carbohydrate]]s, with no [[protein]] or [[fat]].<ref name="nd">{{cite web |title=Tapioca, dried pearls per 100 g |url=https://nutritiondata.self.com/facts/cereal-grains-and-pasta/5733/2 |publisher=Nutritiondata.com, Conde Nast; from SR-21 of the USDA National Nutrient Database |access-date=1 July 2020 |date=2018 |archive-date=July 1, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200701143706/https://nutritiondata.self.com/facts/cereal-grains-and-pasta/5733/2 |url-status=live }}</ref> In a 100-gram reference amount, dried tapioca supplies 358 [[calorie]]s and no or only trace amounts of [[dietary mineral]]s and [[vitamin]]s.<ref name=nd/>

=== Flatbreads ===
A '''''casabe''''' is a thin [[flatbread]] made from bitter cassava root without [[leavening]]. It was originally produced by the [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|indigenous]] [[Arawaks|Arawak]] and [[Kalina people|Carib]] peoples because these roots were a common plant of the [[rain forest]]s where they lived. In eastern [[Venezuela]], many indigenous groups still make ''casabe''. It is their chief bread-like staple. Indigenous communities, such as the Ye-Kuana, Kari-Ña, [[Yanomami]], Guarao or [[Warao people|Warao]] descended from the Caribe or Arawac nations, still make ''casabe''.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.stanford.edu/group/arts/honduras/discovery_eng/customs/casave/index.html|title=Casabe: Garífuna Yucca Bread|publisher=Stanford University|access-date=24 June 2012|archive-date=October 26, 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121026042818/http://www.stanford.edu/group/arts/honduras/discovery_eng/customs/casave/index.html|url-status=dead}}</ref>

[[File:Elaboraciondelcasabe.jpg|thumb|Casabe baking in a small commercial bakery]]
To make ''casabe'', the starchy root of bitter cassava is ground to a pulp, then squeezed to expel a milky, bitter liquid called ''yare''. This carries the poisonous substances with it out of the pulp. Traditionally, this squeezing is done in a ''sebucan'', an 8 to {{convert|12|ft|m|adj=on}} long, tube-shaped, pressure strainer, woven in a characteristic helical pattern from [[Arecaceae|palm]] [[Leaf|leaves]]. The ''sebucan'' usually is hung from a tree branch or ceiling pole, and it has a closed bottom with a loop that is attached to a fixed stick or lever, which is used to stretch the sebucan. When the lever is pushed down, stretching the sebucan, the helical weaving pattern causes the strainer to squeeze the pulp inside. This is similar to the action of a [[Chinese finger trap]]. The pulp is spread in thin, round cakes about {{convert|2|ft|m}} in diameter on a ''[[budare]]'' to roast or toast.

Thin and crisp cakes of ''casabe'' are often broken apart and eaten like crackers. Like bread, ''casabe'' can be eaten alone or with other dishes. Thicker ''casabe'' usually are eaten slightly moistened. A sprinkle of a few drops of [[liquid]] is enough to transform a dry ''casabe'' into soft, smooth bread.

===Tapioca pearls{{anchor|Tapioca#Tapioca_pearls}}===
[[File:Bubble_Tea.png|thumb|upright|[[Bubble tea|Bubble milk tea]] with tapioca pearls]]
{{Main|Tapioca pearl}}
[[File:Sabudana in bowl.jpg|thumb|Sabudana]]
Tapioca pearls, also known as ''boba'' in East Asia, are produced by passing the moist starch through a sieve under pressure. Pearl tapioca is a common ingredient in Asian [[dessert]]s such as [[falooda]], [[kolak (dessert)|kolak]], [[sago soup]], and in sweet drinks such as [[bubble tea]], [[fruit slush]] and [[taho]], where they provide a chewy contrast to the sweetness and smooth texture of the drink. Small pearls are preferred for use in puddings. Large pearls are preferred for use in drinks. These pearls most often are brown, not white, due to the sugar added and are traditionally used in [[black tea|black]] or [[green tea|green]] tea drinks. They are used as various colors in [[shave ice]] and hot drinks. In addition to their use in puddings and beverages, tapioca pearls may be used in cakes.

The pearls are known as ''sābudānā'' in the [[Indian subcontinent]]; they are used for sweet and savory dishes, such as [[sabudana khichri]]. In Brazil, the pearls are cooked with wine or other liquid to add flavor and are called ''sagu''.

====Processing and properties====
[[File:Tapioca-1.jpg|thumb|Small, opaque pearl tapioca before soaking]]
Processing of the cassava flour into tapioca pearls requires the intermediate step of a product called tapioca grit. Tapioca grit is dried cassava flour that is partially [[Starch gelatinization|gelatinized]] so that it looks like flakes or irregularly-shaped granules.<ref name="Adebowale-2008">{{Cite journal|last1=Adebowale|first1=A.A.|last2=Sanni|first2=L.O.|last3=Onitilo|first3=M.O.|year=2008|title=Chemical composition and pasting properties of tapioca grits from different cassava varieties and roasting methods.|journal=African Journal of Food Science|volume=2|pages=77–82}}</ref>

In contrast, making starch pearls uses a different process of roasting. To form the pearls, the tapioca grit can be cut or extruded into the shape of pearls, either small ({{convert|3|mm|sp=us}}) or large ({{convert|6-8|mm|sp=us}}).<ref name="Collado-1998">{{Cite journal|last1=Collado|first1=Lilia S.|last2=Corke|first2=Harold|year=1998|title=Pasting properties of commercial and experimental starch pearls|journal=Cereal Chemistry|volume=35|issue=1–2|pages=89–96}}</ref><ref name="Fu-2005">{{Cite journal|last1=Fu|first1=Yi-Chung|last2=Dai|first2=Li|last3=Yang|first3=Binghuei B.|date=2005-02-01|title=Microwave finish drying of (tapioca) starch pearls|journal=International Journal of Food Science & Technology|language=en|volume=40|issue=2|pages=119–132|doi=10.1111/j.1365-2621.2004.00898.x|issn=1365-2621}}</ref> The pearls are subjected to a form of heat-moisture treatment, which can extend shelf life up to 2 years.<ref name="Fu-2005" />

Tapioca pearls have many unique properties that contribute to texture and mouth feel. Many of these physical properties are a result of its starch composition and are significantly affected by processing. Tapioca pearls are characteristically soft and chewy, with a prominent elastic texture and translucent appearance.<ref name="Fu-2005" />

===South America===
In [[Colombia]] and [[Venezuela]], [[arepa]]s may be made with tapioca flour rather than cornmeal. Tapioca arepas probably predate cornmeal arepas;{{citation needed|date=February 2014}} among traditional cultures of the Caribbean, the name for them is [[casabe]]. Throughout both Spanish and Portuguese South America, the tapioca, or yuca, starch is used to make regional variations of the baked [[cheese bun]], known locally as ''[[pandebono]]'', ''[[pan de yuca]]'', ''[[pão de queijo]]'', ''[[chipá]]'', or ''[[cuñapé]]'', among other names.

The whole, unprocessed cassava root also has several culinary uses throughout South America.
====Brazil====
[[File:Tapioca do Alto da Sé - Olinda-PE.jpg|thumb|Beiju, Brazilian tapioca flatbread of Alto da Sé, in [[Olinda]], [[Pernambuco]].]]

In [[Cuisine of Brazil|Brazilian cuisine]], tapioca is used for different types of meals. In beiju (or biju), also simply called "tapioca," <ref>{{cite web|last=McMenamin|first=Aura|date=2019-06-05|title=At Padoca, Brazilian Comfort Foods that Are Easy on the Wallet|url=https://www.dublininquirer.com/2019/06/05/at-padoca-brazilian-comfort-foods-that-are-easy-on-the-wallet|url-status=live|access-date=2021-06-05|website=Dublin Inquirer|archive-date=June 5, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210605054227/https://www.dublininquirer.com/2019/06/05/at-padoca-brazilian-comfort-foods-that-are-easy-on-the-wallet}}</ref> the tapioca is moistened, strained through a sieve to become a coarse flour, then sprinkled onto a hot griddle or pan, where the heat makes the moist grains fuse into a flatbread which resembles a [[pancake]] or [[Crêpe|crepe]]. Then it may be buttered and eaten like toast (its most common use as a breakfast dish), or it may be filled with savory or sweet fillings, which define the kind of meal the tapioca is used for: breakfast/dinner or dessert. Choices for fillings range from butter, cheese, ham, bacon, vegetables, various kinds of [[meat]], [[chocolate]], [[fruit]]s such as ground coconut, [[condensed milk]], chocolate with slices of banana or [[strawberry]], Nutella and cinnamon among others. This kind of tapioca dish is usually served warm.

A regional dessert called ''[[Sagu (dessert)|sagu]]'' is also made in Southern Brazil from tapioca pearls traditionally cooked with cinnamon and cloves in red wine, although other fruit flavors may be used. The cassava root is known by different names throughout the country: ''mandioca'' in the North, Central-West, and São Paulo; ''macaxeira'' in the Northeast; ''aipim'' in the Southeast and South.

The fine-grained tapioca starch is called ''polvilho,'' and it is classified as either "sweet" or "sour." Sour ''polvilho'' is commonly used in dishes such as ''[[pão de queijo]]'' or "[[Cheese_bun|cheese bread]]," in which the starch is mixed with a hard cheese, usually matured [[Minas cheese]] (could be substituted by [[Parmesan cheese]]), eggs and butter and baked in the oven. The final result is an aromatic, chewy, and often crusty kind of bread that is ubiquitous across the country. Sweet ''polvilho'' is commonly used in cookies or cakes.

===North America===
[[File:Tapioca22.jpg|thumb|left|Tapioca pudding]]
While frequently associated with [[tapioca pudding]], a dessert in the United States, tapioca is also used in other courses.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1999/03/03/dining/tapioca-moves-beyond-its-pudding-phase.html?pagewanted=all&src=pm|title=Tapioca Moves Beyond Its Pudding Phase|last=Clark|first=Melissa|date=3 March 1999|newspaper=The New York Times|access-date=29 September 2012|archive-date=April 3, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150403224117/http://www.nytimes.com/1999/03/03/dining/tapioca-moves-beyond-its-pudding-phase.html?pagewanted=all&src=pm|url-status=live}}</ref> People on [[gluten-free diet]]s can eat bread made with tapioca flour (however some tapioca flour has wheat added to it). Tapioca syrup is sometimes added as a sweetener to a wide variety of foods and beverages as an alternative to sucrose or corn syrup.

===West Indies===
[[File:Taíno women preparing cassava bread.png|right|200px|thumb|[[Taíno]] women preparing [[cassava bread]] in 1565: grating yuca roots into a paste, shaping the bread, and cooking it on a fire-heated burén]]
Tapioca is a staple food from which dishes such as pepper pot as well as alcohol are made. It may be used to clean the teeth, as a foodstuff cooked with meats or fish, and in desserts such as cassava pone.{{Citation needed|date=November 2010}}

Specifically in rural Cuba early in Spanish rule, tapioca's popularity grew because it was easy to cultivate the crop and to transport it to nearby Spanish settlements, eventually influencing the way land and people were divided in that early imperial era.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=LeRiverend|first=Julio|date=January 1984|title=Problemas de la Formación Agraria Cubana|journal=Revista de la Biblioteca Nacional José Martí|volume=26|issue=1|pages=153–185|via=EBSCO Host}}</ref>

=== Asia ===
In various Asian countries, tapioca pearls are widely used in desserts and drinks including Taiwanese [[bubble tea]].

====Southeast Asia====
{{See also|Maida (flour)}}[[File:Thai Tapioca Pudding.jpg|thumb|Thai tapioca pudding]]
In Southeast Asia, the cassava root is commonly cut into slices, wedges or strips, fried, and served as [[tapioca chips]], similar to [[potato chips]], [[potato wedges|wedges]] or [[french fries]]. Another method is to boil large blocks until soft and serve them with grated [[coconut]] as a dessert, either slightly salted or sweetened, usually with [[palm sugar]] syrup. In Thailand, this dish is called ''mansampalang'' (มันสำปะหลัง).

Commercially prepared tapioca has many uses. Tapioca powder is commonly used as a thickener for soups and other liquid foods. It is also used as a binder in [[Tablet (pharmacy)|pharmaceutical tablets]] and natural paints. The flour is used to make tender breads, cakes, biscuits, cookies, and other delicacies. Tapioca flakes are used to thicken the filling of [[pie]]s made with fruits having a high water content.

A typical recipe for tapioca jelly can be made by washing two tablespoonfuls of tapioca, pouring a pint of water over it, and soaking it for three hours. The mixture is placed over low heat and simmered until quite clear. If too thick, a little boiling water can be added. It can be sweetened with white sugar, flavored with coconut milk or a little wine, and eaten alone or with cream.

=====Indonesia=====
{{see|Krupuk|Kripik|Cilok}}
[[File:Tapioca cracker.jpg|thumb|upright|Tapioca crackers from Indonesia sold in a [[Los Angeles]], [[California]] market]]
[[Krupuk]], or traditional Indonesian crackers, is a significant use of tapioca starch in [[Indonesia]]. The most common krupuk is ''kerupuk kampung'' or ''kerupuk aci'' made of tapioca starch. The tapioca starch might be flavored with minced shrimp as ''krupuk udang'' ([[prawn cracker]]) or ''krupuk ikan'' ([[fish cracker]]). The thinly sliced or sometimes quite thick cassava was also sun-dried and deep fried to be made as ''[[kripik]] singkong'' crackers ([[cassava chips]] or [[tapioca chips]]). A variant of hot and spicy ''kripik singkong'' coated with sugar and chili pepper is known as ''kripik [[balado (food)|balado]]''<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.radioaustralia.net.au/indonesian/2014-02-07/warga-australia-pun-belajar-membuat-keripik-balado/1261030|title=Warga Australia Pun Belajar Membuat Keripik Balado|website=www.radioaustralia.net.au|language=id|access-date=2018-01-27|archive-date=January 27, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180127202341/http://www.radioaustralia.net.au/indonesian/2014-02-07/warga-australia-pun-belajar-membuat-keripik-balado/1261030|url-status=live}}</ref> or ''[[keripik sanjay]]'', a specialty of [[Bukittinggi]] city in West Sumatra.

[[Cilok]] is a tapioca dumpling snack. [[Tapai]] is made by fermenting large blocks with a yeast-like bacteria culture to produce a sweet and slightly alcoholic dessert. Further fermentation releases more liquids and alcohol, producing ''[[Tuak]]'', a sour alcoholic beverage.

=====Malaysia=====
A variation of the chips popular amongst the [[Malays (ethnic group)|Malays]] is ''kerepek pedas'', where the crisps are coated with a hot, sweet, and tangy [[Chili pepper|chili]] and [[onion]] paste, or [[sambal]], usually with fried [[anchovy|anchovies]] and [[peanut]]s added.

The cultivation of the plant is also extensively present in the Malay Peninsula, where in the hands of the Chinese, cassava tubers weighing from {{convert|4|-|13|kg}} are first scraped and then washed carefully. By being passed between rollers, they are reduced to a pulp which is again carefully washed, then shaken up with water. This causes the fecula to separate and pass through a very fine sieve, resulting in flour. The flour is repeatedly washed and then placed on mats to bleach via sun exposure and air. Different applications may be applied here to give rise to the popular and loved tapioca pearls in bubble tea beverages, also known as boba. The pearl tapioca is achieved by placing the flour in a cradle-shaped frame covered with canvas, where it's slightly moistened and rotated to be granulated. Finally, it is dried in the sun, then over the fire in a greased iron pan, and ready for the market.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Dorris|first=George|date=2009-07-07|title=Dance and the New York Opera War, 1906–1912|journal=Dance Chronicle|volume=32|issue=2|pages=195–262|doi=10.1080/01472520902965924|s2cid=191626616|issn=0147-2526}}</ref>

===South Asia===
In South Asia, tapioca pearls are known as ''sagudana'', ''sabudana'' or ''shabudana'' (pearl [[sago]]) or ''sabba akki'' (in [[Kannada language|Kannada]]). The pearls are used to make snacks.

====Bangladesh====
Sagudana is sometimes used in dessert dishes. Faluda, a popular food, is also prepared with curd, ice, and other ingredients during summer.

==== India ====

Tapioca pearls are a common ingredient of traditional Indian dishes such as [[kheer]].

Tapioca pearls are used to make ''Sabudana [[khichdi]], [[pakoda]], [[ paratha]]'' in [[Maharashtra]], which is commonly eaten during ''vrat'' (fasting). Indians generally soak it overnight or 6-8 hours in before cooking.

[[File:Tapioca.jpg|thumb|Cooked cassava dish from [[Kerala, India]]]]

[[Cassava]] is referred to as Tapioca in Indian English usage. Cassava is called kappa or maracheeni in [[Malayalam]].

It was introduced in 1880-1885 C.E. by the then Maharaja of [[Travancore]], [[Visakham Thirunal|Vishakham Thirunal Rama Varma]] after a great famine hit the kingdom, as a substitute for rice.<ref name=Saraswathy2019>Saraswathy Nagarajan, [https://www.thehindu.com/life-and-style/food/how-tapioca-came-to-travancore/article28181288.ece "How tapioca came to Travancore"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200727082403/https://www.thehindu.com/life-and-style/food/how-tapioca-came-to-travancore/article28181288.ece |date=July 27, 2020 }}, ''The Hindu'', June 27, 2019</ref>

Tapioca is widely consumed across Kerala. It is taken as breakfast or as a staple food. It is boiled (after skinning and cutting it into large pieces of about {{convert|6–8|cm|abbr=on}} long or into small {{convert|2|cm|abbr=on}} cubes) in water till adequately cooked, and the water is drained off. Once cooked, it can be mixed with grated coconut, chili, salt, turmeric, etc., then steamed and mashed into a dry pudding. If desired, this can be garnished with oil with mustard, onion, curry leaves, etc. Tapioca pieces (chendan kappa) are often eaten with simple chili sauce (a paste of green/red chili, shallots, garlic, salt, and oil).

Mashed tapioca is paired with meat or fish curry, especially sardines, as a delicacy in Kerala. Another popular combination is mashed tapioca with dried salted sardines directly cooked on charcoal and green chili.

Tapioca can be stored for extended periods by parboiling, drying it after skinning, and slicing it into 0.5&nbsp;cm thick pieces. This is called unakka kappa (dried tapioca). Tapioca chips, thinly sliced tapioca wafers, similar to potato chips, are also extremely popular.

In [[Tamil language|Tamil]], the roots of tapioca are called ''maravalli kizhangu'' and are used to prepare chips.
Tapioca pearls are referred to as "javvarisi" in Tamil. Most of the delicacies are cooked from this form of tapioca because it is easier to handle than the raw root itself. Tapioca is cultivated more in several districts, providing steady income to farmers in Tamil Nadu. Tapioca can be consumed raw (after removing the skins/outer cover) or boiled for various dishes or snacks.

In [[Nagaland]] and [[Mizoram]] in [[Northeast India]], tapioca is eaten as a snack. It is usually boiled with a bit of salt in water after skinning it, or snacks are made by drying the tapioca after cutting it. It is then powdered into flour and turned into dough to either make a fired or baked biscuit. In their local dialect, they call it ''kuri aloo'', meaning "wood potato." All groups of society eat these chips as a delicacy. The skin of the tapioca, which is not edible for humans, is kept aside to prepare food for domesticated pigs.

In [[Assam]], sabudana is also used as a substitute diet against boiled rice (bhaat) for the sick, elderly, or infirm for easy digestion and strength.

==== Sri Lanka ====
It is known as "mangnokka" in [[Sri Lanka]], as well as by its Sinhalese and Tamil names. It is generally eaten boiled with a chili onion mixture called "lunu miris sambol" (a type of salsa) or coconut [[sambal]]. Another popular cassava dish is a curry cooked in coconut milk with a splash of turmeric. At the same time, it is popular to have tapioca pearls prepared as a delicacy. At one time, tapioca pearls were used to starch clothes by boiling tapioca pearls with the clothes. Spiced cassava chips are a popular snack usually sold by street vendors and street-side shops.

===Africa===
[[File:Drying cassava chips DRC.jpg|thumb|upright|left|Drying cassava chips in [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Congo]]]]
Tapioca is eaten in the regions of [[Nigeria]] and [[Ghana]] as a common meal, usually at breakfast. Cassava is a staple food in West Africa, where it is widely eaten. In Nigeria, cassava is grated and dry roasted into ''[[garri]]''; this is consumed by adding water, sugar, and or peanuts accompanied by meat or smoked fish. Garri is also made into ''[[eba]]'' by adding hot water; this is eaten with stew or soup.  The [[Ijebu people|Ijebu]] people of Nigeria make a cold water variant of eba by pounding the mixture with their fist until it becomes homogeneous; this is called ''feshelu''.  The Egbas of [[Abeokuta]], [[Ogun State]] peel, dry, and grind cassava into a powder called ''elubo'', which is then made into ''amala paki'' and eaten with a jute leaf stew called ''ewedu''.

In Lagos, cassava is processed into tapioca which is cooked in coconut milk and sugar; this can be eaten as a breakfast meal or as a dessert at parties or dinner.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.rapportnaija.com/2017/08/health-benefits-of-tapioca.html | title=Seven Incredible Health Benefits Of Tapioca | access-date=November 24, 2017 | archive-date=November 20, 2017 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171120072857/http://www.rapportnaija.com/2017/08/health-benefits-of-tapioca.html | url-status=usurped }}</ref> This is called ''mengau''.

The [[Igbos]] of Eastern Nigeria add [[palm oil]] and other seasonings to boiled and grated cassava, a dish called ''abacha''.

People of the Niger Delta extract starch from cassava cooked into a starch eaten with pepper soup.

In Ghana, cassava is peeled, boiled until tender, and pounded in a large wooden mortar and pestle until it becomes homogeneous. This is called ''[[fufu]]''. It is eaten with soup.

===Europe===
In Belgium, tiny white tapioca pearls are added to clear soups. Tapioca pearls are used in French desserts, such as parfaits. A savory snack in the United Kingdom, [[Skips (snack)|Skips]], is made from flavored tapioca.

Tapioca is also widely available in its dried forms and is used in some countries to make [[tapioca pudding]].

=== Other uses ===
Tapioca root can be used to manufacture [[biodegradable plastic|biodegradable]] bags developed from a tapioca [[resin]] of the plant as a viable plastic substitute.<ref>{{cite web |last=Kasper-Claridge |first=Manuela |date=5 November 2018 |title=Manioc to the rescue in the fight against plastic pollution |url=https://www.dw.com/en/manioc-to-the-rescue-in-the-fight-against-plastic-pollution/a-46125335 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181106153053/https://www.dw.com/en/manioc-to-the-rescue-in-the-fight-against-plastic-pollution/a-46125335 |archive-date=November 6, 2018 |access-date=2019-06-15 |website=DW.COM |language=en-GB}}</ref> The product is [[renewable]], [[Reuse|reusable]] and [[recyclable]]. Other tapioca resin products include gloves,<ref>{{Cite patent|title=Disposable biodegradable gloves and preparation method thereof|gdate=2014-01-02|url=https://patents.google.com/patent/CN103740022A/en}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220520185936/https://patents.google.com/patent/CN103740022A/en|date=May 20, 2022}}</ref> capes and aprons.{{citation needed|date=February 2015}}

Tapioca starch, used commonly for [[starch]]ing shirts and garments before [[ironing]], may be sold in bottles of [[natural gum]] starch to be dissolved in water or in [[spray can]]s.

The low amylose and low residual content, combined with the high molecular weight of its amylose, make tapioca a useful starting material for modification into a variety of specialty products. Tapioca starch applications in specialty products have become increasingly popular. The effects of additives on thermal transitions and physical and chemical properties can affect the quality and storage stability of tapioca-based products.{{Citation needed|date=July 2021}}<ref>{{cite journal |author=Huaiwen Yang* and Yuhsien Lin |date=2014-03-19 |title=Effect of Thermal Processing on Flow Properties and Stability of Thickened Fluid Matrices Formulated by Tapioca Starch, Hydroxyl Distarch Phosphate (E-1442), and Xanthan Gum Associating Dysphagia-Friendly Potential - PMC |journal=Polymers |publisher=Ncbi.nlm.nih.gov |volume=13 |issue=1 |page=162 |doi=10.3390/polym13010162 |pmc=7795945 |pmid=33406799 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

Salt is often added to starch-based products to enhance flavor and functionality, as it can increase the gelatinization temperature of tapioca starch and delay the retrogradation of the gels formed upon cooling. Cations, particularly Na<sup>+</sup> and Ca<sup>2+</sup>, can interact electrostatically with the oxygen atoms in the glucose molecule of the starch polymer. This interaction induces an antiplasticizing effect and increases competition for available water, increasing the [[glass transition temperature]] of the gelatinized molecule.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Chuang |first1=Lillian |last2=Panyoyai |first2=Naksit |last3=Shanks |first3=Robert A. |last4=Kasapis |first4=Stefan |date=15 August 2017 |title=Effect of salt on the glass transition of condensed tapioca starch systems |journal=Food Chemistry |language=en |volume=229 |pages=120–126 |doi=10.1016/j.foodchem.2017.02.063 |pmid=28372154}}</ref>