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Thermionic converter
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==Recent work== All the applications cited above have employed technology in which the basic physical understanding and performance of the thermionic converter were essentially the same as those achieved before 1970. During the period from 1973 to 1983, however, significant research on advanced low-temperature thermionic converter technology for fossil-fueled industrial and commercial electric power production was conducted in the US, and continued until 1995 for possible [[space reactor]] and [[naval reactor]] applications. That research has shown that substantial improvements in converter performance can be obtained now at lower operating temperatures by addition of [[oxygen]] to the caesium vapor,<ref>J-L. Desplat, L.K. Hansen, G.L. Hatch, J.B. McVey and N.S. Rasor, "HET IV Final Report", Volumes 1 & 2, Rasor Associates Report #NSR-71/95/0842, (Nov. 1995); performed for Westinghouse Bettis Laboratory under Contract # 73-864733; 344 pages. Also available in total as C.B. Geller, C.S. Murray, D.R. Riley, J-L. Desplat, L.K. Hansen, G.L. Hatch, J.B. McVey and N.S. Rasor, "High-Efficiency Thermionics (HET-IV) and Converter Advancement (CAP) programs. Final Reports", DOE DE96010173; 386 pages (1996).</ref> by suppression of electron reflection at the electrode surfaces,<ref>N.S. Rasor, "The Important Effect of Electron Reflection on Thermionic Converter Performance", Proc. 33rd Intersoc. Energy Conv. Engr. Conf., Colorado Springs, CO, Aug., 1998, paper 98-211.</ref> and by hybrid mode operation. Similarly, improvements via use of oxygen-containing electrodes have been demonstrated in Russia along with design studies of systems employing the advanced thermionic converter performance.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Yarygin |first=Valery I.|author2=Viktor N. Sidelnikov |author3=Vitaliy S. Mironov |title=Energy Conversion Options For NASA's Space Nuclear Power Systems Initiative – Underestimated Capability of Thermionics |journal=Proceedings of the 2nd International Energy Conversion Engineering Conference}}</ref> Recent studies<ref>{{cite journal |last=Svensson |first=Robert|author2=Leif Holmlid |title=Very low work function surfaces from condensed excited states: Rydberg matter of cesium |journal=Surface Science |volume=269-270 |pages=695–699 |date=May 15, 1992 |issn=0039-6028 |doi=10.1016/0039-6028(92)91335-9|bibcode=1992SurSc.269..695S}}</ref> have shown that excited Cs-atoms in thermionic converters form clusters of Cs-[[Rydberg matter]] which yield a decrease of collector emitting work function from 1.5 eV to 1.0 – 0.7 eV. Due to long-lived nature of Rydberg matter this low work function remains low for a long time which essentially increases the low-temperature converter’s efficiency.
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