Editing Timothy Leary (section)

===Mexico and Harvard research (1957–1963)===

==== Introduction to psychedelic mushrooms ====
[[File:TimothyLeary-LectureTour-OnStage-SUNYAB-1969.jpg|thumb|right|Leary at the [[State University of New York at Buffalo]] during a lecture tour in 1969]]
On May 13, 1957, ''[[Life (magazine)|Life]]'' magazine published "[[Seeking the Magic Mushroom]]", an article by [[R. Gordon Wasson]] about the use of [[psychedelic mushrooms|psilocybin mushrooms]] in religious rites of the indigenous [[Mazatec people]] of Mexico.<ref>{{cite magazine |title=Life on LSD |url=http://www.life.com/image/50711262/in-gallery/50751/life-on-lsd |url-status=dead|magazine=[[Life (magazine)|Life]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101026205242/http://www.life.com/image/50711262/in-gallery/50751/life-on-lsd |archive-date=October 26, 2010}}</ref> Anthony Russo, a colleague of Leary's, had experimented with [[psychedelic drug|psychedelic]] ''[[Psilocybe mexicana]]'' mushrooms on a trip to Mexico and told Leary about it. In August 1960,<ref>Cashman, John. "The LSD Story". Fawcett Publications, 1966</ref> Leary traveled to [[Cuernavaca]], Mexico, with Russo and consumed [[psilocybin]] mushrooms for the first time, an experience that drastically altered the course of his life.<ref name="video">''Ram Dass Fierce Grace'', 2001, Zeitgeist Video</ref> In 1965, Leary said that he had "learned more about ... [his] brain and its possibilities ... [and] more about psychology in the five hours after taking these mushrooms than ... in the preceding 15 years of studying and doing research".<ref name="video"/>

Back at Harvard, Leary and his associates (notably Alpert) began a research program known as the [[Harvard Psilocybin Project]]. The goal was to analyze psilocybin's effects on human subjects (first prisoners, and later [[Andover Newton Theological School|Andover Newton Theological Seminary]] students) from a synthesized version of the drug, one of two active compounds found in a wide variety of hallucinogenic mushrooms, including ''[[Psilocybe mexicana]]''. Psilocybin was produced in a process developed by [[Albert Hofmann]] of [[Sandoz Pharmaceuticals]], who was famous for synthesizing LSD.<ref>{{cite book| last1 = Sandison | first1 = Ronald|title = Psychedelia Britannica - Hallucinogenic Drugs in Britain| publisher = Turnaround| page = 57| date = 1997| isbn = 1873262051}} 'Psilocybin...was synthesised in Dr Hofmann's laboratory in 1958.'</ref>

[[Beat Generation|Beat poet]] [[Allen Ginsberg]] heard about the Harvard research project and asked to join. Leary was inspired by Ginsberg's enthusiasm, and the two shared an optimism that psychedelics could help people discover a higher level of consciousness. They began introducing psychedelics to intellectuals and artists including [[Jack Kerouac]], [[Maynard Ferguson]], [[Charles Mingus]] and [[Charles Olson]].<ref>Goffman, K. and Joy, D. 2004. ''Counterculture Through the Ages: From Abraham to Acid House''. New York: Villard, 250–252</ref>

==== Concord Prison Experiment ====
Leary argued that [[psychedelic substance]]s—in proper doses, a stable setting, and under the guidance of psychologists—could benefit behavior in ways not easily obtained by regular therapy. He experimented in treating [[alcoholism]] and reforming criminals, and many of his subjects said they had profound [[mysticism|mystical]] and spiritual experiences that permanently improved their lives.{{sfnp|Leary|1969}}

The [[Concord Prison Experiment]] evaluated the use of psilocybin and psychotherapy in the rehabilitation of released prisoners. Thirty-six prisoners were reported to have repented and sworn off criminality after Leary and his associates guided them through the psychedelic experience. The overall [[recidivism]] rate for American prisoners was 60%, whereas the rate for those in Leary's project reportedly dropped to 20%. The experimenters concluded that long-term reduction in criminal recidivism could be effected with a combination of psilocybin-assisted group psychotherapy (inside the prison) along with a comprehensive post-release follow-up support program modeled on [[Alcoholics Anonymous]].{{sfnp|Metzner|Weil|1963}}{{sfnp|Metzner|1965}}

==== Dissension over studies ====
[[File:TimothyLeary-LectureTour-SUNYAB-1969.jpg|thumb|Timothy Leary, family, and band at the State University of New York at Buffalo during his 1969 lecture tour]]

The Concord conclusions were contested in a follow-up study on the basis of time differences monitoring the study group vs. the control group and differences between subjects re-incarcerated for parole violations and those imprisoned for new crimes. The researchers concluded that statistically only a slight improvement could be attributed to psilocybin, in contrast to the significant improvement reported by Leary and his colleagues.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.maps.org/news-letters/v09n4/09410con.html |title=Dr. Leary's Concord Prison Experiment: A 34 Year Follow-Up Study |publisher=Maps.org |access-date=May 19, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140322200535/http://www.maps.org/news-letters/v09n4/09410con.html |archive-date=March 22, 2014 |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Rick Doblin]] suggested that Leary had fallen prey to the [[Halo Effect]], skewing the results and clinical conclusions. Doblin further accused Leary of lacking "a higher standard" or "highest ethical standards in order to regain the trust of regulators". [[Ralph Metzner]] rebuked Doblin for these assertions: "In my opinion, the existing accepted standards of honesty and truthfulness are perfectly adequate. We have those standards, not to curry favor with regulators, but because it is the agreement within the scientific community that observations should be reported accurately and completely. There is no proof in any of this re-analysis that Leary unethically manipulated his data."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.maps.org/research/ralphmetzner_concord_follow-up.pdf |title=Reflections on the Concord Prison Project and the Follow-Up Study |publisher=Maps.org |access-date=May 19, 2014 |url-status=bot: unknown |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140505094936/http://www.maps.org/research/ralphmetzner_concord_follow-up.pdf |archive-date=May 5, 2014 }} Archived from the original on July 24, 2016.</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Doblin |first=Rick|title= Dr. Leary's Concord Prison Experiment:A 34 Year Follow-Up Study|work=Journal of Psychoactive Drugs |issue=4 |pages=419–426|date=1998|volume=30 }}</ref>

Leary and Alpert founded the International Federation for Internal Freedom (IFIF) in 1962 in [[Cambridge, Massachusetts]], to carry out studies in the religious use of psychedelic drugs.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.timothylearyarchives.org/international-federation-for-internal-freedom-statement-of-purpose/|title=International Federation For Internal Freedom – Statement of Purpose|publisher=timothylearyarchives.org|date=March 21, 2009|access-date=September 24, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170823073645/http://www.timothylearyarchives.org/international-federation-for-internal-freedom-statement-of-purpose/|archive-date=August 23, 2017|url-status=live}}</ref>{{sfnp|Lee|Shlain|1992|p=36}} This was run by Lisa Bieberman (now known as Licia Kuenning), a friend of Leary.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.lycaeum.org/drugs.old/hyperreal/millbrook/ch-04.html |title=4: Sir Dinadan the Humorist |publisher=Lycaeum.org |access-date=May 19, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131224122442/http://www.lycaeum.org/drugs.old/hyperreal/millbrook/ch-04.html |archive-date=December 24, 2013 |url-status=dead }}</ref>{{sfnp|Higgs|2006|p=50}} ''[[The Harvard Crimson]]'' called her a "disciple" who ran a Psychedelic Information Center out of her home and published a national LSD newspaper.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.thecrimson.com/article.aspx?ref=134589 |title=Court Finds Lisa Bieberman Guilty Of Violations of Federal Drug Laws &#124; News &#124; The Harvard Crimson |publisher=Thecrimson.com |date=November 18, 1966 |access-date=May 19, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080225080415/http://www.thecrimson.com/article.aspx?ref=134589 |archive-date=February 25, 2008 |url-status=live }}</ref> That publication was actually Leary and Alpert's journal ''Psychedelic Review'' and Bieberman (a graduate of the [[Radcliffe Institute for Advanced Study]] at Harvard, who had volunteered for Leary as a student) was its circulation manager.<ref name=HiattJune2016>{{cite news|last=Hiatt|first=Nathaniel J.|url=http://www.thecrimson.com/article/2016/5/23/trip-down-memory-lane/|title=A Trip Down Memory Lane: LSD at Harvard|newspaper=Harvard Crimson|date=May 23, 2016|access-date=September 24, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170919105932/http://www.thecrimson.com/article/2016/5/23/trip-down-memory-lane/|archive-date=September 19, 2017|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=hanna|first=jon|url=https://www.erowid.org/culture/characters/bieberman_lisa/bieberman_lisa_biography1.shtml|title=Erowid Character Vaults: Lisa Bieberman Extended Biography|publisher=Erowid.org|date=March 28, 2012|access-date=September 24, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170925132326/https://www.erowid.org/culture/characters/bieberman_lisa/bieberman_lisa_biography1.shtml|archive-date=September 25, 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Leary's and Alpert's research attracted so much attention that many who wanted to participate in the experiments had to be turned away. To satisfy the curiosity of those who were turned away, a black market for psychedelics sprang up near the Harvard campus.{{sfnp|Weil|1963}}

==== Firing by Harvard ====
Other professors in the Harvard Center for Research in Personality raised concerns about the experiments' legitimacy and safety.<ref name=Kansra /><ref name=Harvard /><ref name=SaraDavidson>{{cite journal |last=Davidson |first=Sara |title=The Ultimate Trip |journal=[[Tufts Magazine]] |date=Fall 2006 |url=http://www.tufts.edu/alumni/magazine/fall2006/features/ultimate-trip.html |access-date=March 15, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304021804/http://www.tufts.edu/alumni/magazine/fall2006/features/ultimate-trip.html |archive-date=March 4, 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref> Leary and Alpert taught a class that was required for graduation and colleagues felt they were abusing their power by pressuring graduate students to take hallucinogens in the experiments. Leary and Alpert also went against policy by giving psychedelics to undergraduate students and did not select participants through [[random sampling]]. It was also ethically questionable that the researchers sometimes took hallucinogens along with the subjects they were studying. These concerns were printed in ''[[The Harvard Crimson]]'', leading the university to halt the experiments. The [[Massachusetts Department of Public Health]] launched an investigation that was later dropped but the university eventually fired Leary and Alpert.

According to [[Andrew Weil]], Leary (who held an untenured teaching appointment) was fired for missing his scheduled lectures, while Alpert (a [[tenure-track]] assistant professor) was dismissed for allegedly giving an undergraduate psilocybin in an off-campus apartment.{{sfnp|Weil|1963}}<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Russin |first1=Joseph M. |last2=Weil |first2=Andrew T. |date=January 24, 1973 |title=The Crimson Takes Leary, Alpert to Task |url=https://www.thecrimson.com/article/1973/1/24/the-crimson-takes-leary-alpert-to/ |access-date=2022-04-07 |website=The Harvard Crimson}}</ref> Harvard President [[Nathan Pusey]] released a statement on May 27, 1963, reporting that Leary had left campus without authorization and "failed to keep his classroom appointments". His salary was terminated on April 30, 1963.<ref name="termination">''New York Times'', December 3, 1966, p. 25</ref>