Editing Transphobia (section)

==Manifestations==
Transgender people are often excluded from entitlements or privileges reserved for cisgender people of the same gender: for example, it is common for transgender women to be stopped or questioned when they use public bathrooms designated for women.<ref name="Girshick-2008" /><ref name="Bender-Baird-2011" /> [[Homeless shelter]]s, [[hospital]]s and [[prison]]s have denied trans women admission to women's areas and forced them to sleep and bathe in the presence of men.<ref name="transparent">{{cite book |last=Beam |first= Cris |title= Transparent |publisher= Harvest Books |date=January 2008|isbn=9780156033770}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Beam |first=Cris |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yCKzOfcILZMC |publisher=[[Houghton Mifflin Harcourt]] |title=Transparent: Love, Family, and Living the T with Transgender Teenagers |date=2007 |isbn=9780156033770 |location=Orlando, Florida |oclc=65820154}}</ref>{{Page needed|date=November 2021}}

===Harassment and violence===
{{main|Violence against transgender people}}

The [[Social stigma|stigma]] against [[transgender]] people often results in physical violence or bodily harm, sexual violence or assault, and verbal or emotional abuse.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Weir |first1=Cassandra |last2=Piquette |first2=Noëlla| date=2018| title=Counselling transgender individuals: Issues and considerations.|journal=Canadian Psychology |volume=59 |issue=3 |pages=252–261 |doi=10.1037/cap0000129|s2cid=149607596|issn=1878-7304}}</ref> Transgender individuals are at increased risk for experiencing aggression and violence throughout their life when compared to cisgender individuals, especially when it comes to sexual violence.<ref name="Stotzer 2009 170–179">{{Cite journal |last=Stotzer |first=Rebecca L. |date=2009 |title=Violence against transgender people: A review of United States data |journal=Aggression and Violent Behavior|volume=14|issue=3|pages=170–179|doi=10.1016/j.avb.2009.01.006|issn=1359-1789}}</ref>  Other kinds of abuse include [[bullying]], [[harassment]], and multiple forms of [[discrimination]].<ref name="McKay 2017 665–678">{{Cite journal |last1=McKay |first1=Tasseli |last2=Lindquist |first2=Christine H. |last3=Misra |first3=Shilpi |date=2017 |title=Understanding (and Acting On) 20 Years of Research on Violence and LGBTQ + Communities| journal=Trauma, Violence, & Abuse| volume=20 |issue=5 |pages=665–678 |doi=10.1177/1524838017728708| pmid=29334007 |s2cid=43156503 |issn=1524-8380}}</ref> Abuse against transgender people can come from many different sources, including family and friends, partners, co-workers and acquaintances, strangers, and the police, and the abuse can occur at each developmental stage in life.<ref name="Stotzer 2009 170–179"/>

As homophobia and transphobia are correlated, many trans people experience homophobia and [[heterosexism]] due to people who associate trans people's gender identity with [[homosexuality]], or because trans people may also have a [[sexual orientation]] that is [[non-heterosexual]].<ref name="Adams"/><ref name="Lives" /><ref name="Spijkerboer"/> Author {{ill|Thomas Spijkerboer|qid=Q60690258}} stated that "transgender people subjected to violence, in a range of cultural contexts, frequently report that transphobic violence is expressed in homophobic terms."<ref name="Spijkerboer"/>

According to the [[American Psychological Association]], transgender children are more likely than other children to experience harassment and violence in school, foster care, residential treatment centers, homeless centers, and juvenile justice programs.<ref name="Cisgenderism">{{Cite journal |title= Cisgenderism in psychology: pathologising and misgendering children from 1999 to 2008 |year= 2011 |url= http://epubs.surrey.ac.uk/72252/2/YGA%20%26%20PH%202011%20Cisgenderism.pdf |last1= Ansara |first2=Peter |last2=Hegarty |first1= Y. Gavriel |journal= Psychology & Sexuality |access-date= 20 September 2013 |doi = 10.1080/19419899.2011.576696 |volume=3 |issue= 2 |pages=137–160 |s2cid= 10589506}}</ref> Researchers say trans youth routinely experience taunting, teasing and bullying at school, and that nearly all trans youth say they were verbally or physically harassed in school, particularly during gym class, at school events, or when using single-sex restrooms. Three-quarters report having felt unsafe.<ref name="Handbook of"/>

As adults, transgender people are frequently subjected to ridicule, taunting, and threats of violence, even when just walking down the street or walking into a store.<ref name="Girshick-2008">{{Cite book |last=Girshick |first=Lori B. |url=https://archive.org/details/transgendervoice0000girs_p6i7/page/133/mode/2up |title=Transgender Voices: Beyond Women and Men |publisher=University Press of New England |year=2008 |isbn=978-1584658382 |location=Hanover and London |pages=133–144 |url-access=registration}}</ref> A U.S. survey of 402 older, employed, high-income transgender people found that 60% reported violence or harassment because of their gender identity. Among other things, 56% of the respondents reported being harassed or verbally abused, 30% reported being assaulted, and 8% reported unjustified arrest.<ref name="Lives">{{Cite book|title = The Lives of Transgender People|last = Beemyn|first = Genny|publisher = Columbia University Press |year= 2011 |isbn= 978-0231143073 |location= New York |pages= 91}}</ref>

A study of 81 transgender people in [[Philadelphia]] found that 30% of the respondents reported feeling unsafe in public because they were transgender, with 19% feeling uncomfortable for the same reason. When asked if they had ever been forced to have sex, experienced violence in their home, or been physically abused, the majority answered yes to each question.<ref name="Bockting-2006">{{Cite book|title = Transgender Health and HIV Prevention: Needs Assessment Studies from Transgender Communities Across the United States|last = Bockting|first = Walter O.|publisher = CRC Press|year = 2006|isbn = 978-0789030153|pages = 41–53}}</ref>

==== Sexual violence ====
In 2009, researcher Rebecca L. Stotzer published an article in ''[[Aggression and Violent Behavior]]'' that compiled information from numerous studies reporting violence against transgender people, describing it as "shockingly common" and noting that transgender people have a high risk of experiencing sexual violence throughout their lifetimes, and while reported rates vary considerably among studies for methodological and other reasons, the most common finding is that around 50% of transgender people have been sexually assaulted.<ref name="Stotzer-2009">{{Cite journal|last=Stotzer|first=Rebecca L.|title=Violence against transgender people: A review of United States data|journal=Aggression and Violent Behavior|volume=14|issue=3|pages=170–179|doi=10.1016/j.avb.2009.01.006|year=2009}}</ref>

A meta-analysis on the rates of intimate partner violence found that transgender individuals are 66% more likely to experience violence of some kind from an intimate partner than cisgender subjects, and more than twice as likely to experience both sexual and physical intimate partner violence than their cisgender peers.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Peitzmeier|first1=Sarah M|last2=Malik|first2=Mannat|last3=Kattari|first3=Shanna K|last4=Marrow|first4=Elliot|last5=Stephenson|first5=Rob|last6=Agénor|first6=Madina|last7=Reisner|first7=Sari L|date=Sep 2020|title=Intimate Partner Violence in Transgender Populations: Systematic Review and Meta-analysis of Prevalence and Correlates. |journal=American Journal of Public Health|volume=110|issue=9|pages=pe1–e14|doi=10.2105/AJPH.2020.305774|pmid=32673114|pmc=7427218}}</ref>

==== Physical violence ====
Perpetrators of physical violence against transgender people are reported to have been influenced by negative attitudes against transgender people, many of whom do not report their assault to the police.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Xavier|first=Jessica|title=A needs assessment of transgendered people of color living in Washington, D.C. |journal=International Journal of Transgenderism|pages=31–47}}</ref>  In the United States, the available homicide data suggests that transgender people are murdered at a lower rate than cisgender people. However, young Black and Latina trans women appear to be at greater risk of homicide than their cisgender peers.<ref name="Dinno-2017" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Stotzer|first=Rebecca L.|date=September 2017|title=Data Sources Hinder Our Understanding of Transgender Murders|journal=American Journal of Public Health|volume=107|issue=9|pages=1362–1363|doi=10.2105/AJPH.2017.303973|issn=0090-0036|pmc=5551619|pmid=28787204}}</ref>

==={{anchor|Misgendering and exclusion}}Misgendering===
{{See also|Deadnaming}}
[[File:Autobús transfobo de HazteOir 06.jpg|thumb|Bus with transphobic message promoted by the right-wing organization [[HazteOir]]. Top text in Spanish translates to "Boys have a penis. Girls have a vulva. Don't let them deceive you. If you're born a man, you are a man. If you're a woman, you'll keep being one."]]
Misgendering is the act of labelling or referring to others with a gender that does not match their gender identity.<ref name="Serano2009">{{cite book|author=Julia Serano|title=Whipping Girl: A Transsexual Woman on Sexism and the Scapegoating of Femininity|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/hypatia/article/abs/whipping-girl-a-transsexual-woman-on-sexism-and-the-scapegoating-of-femininity-julia-serano-emery-calif-seal-press-2007/868809CB60F88E0E37943B37338F2988|date=20 May 2009|publisher=Seal Press|via=[[Cambridge University Press]]|isbn=978-0-7867-4791-7|archive-date=27 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221227152807/https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/hypatia/article/abs/whipping-girl-a-transsexual-woman-on-sexism-and-the-scapegoating-of-femininity-julia-serano-emery-calif-seal-press-2007/868809CB60F88E0E37943B37338F2988|access-date=1 January 2023|url-status=bot: unknown}}</ref> Misgendering can be deliberate or accidental; common examples of misgendering a person are using the wrong pronouns to describe someone,<ref name="Bender-Baird-2011">{{Cite book|title = Transgender Employment Experiences: Gendered Perceptions and the Law|last = Bender-Baird|first = Kyla|publisher = SUNY Press|year = 2011|isbn = 978-1438436746|pages = 5–24}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title = Transgender Explained For Those Who Are Not|last = Herman|first = Joanne|publisher = AuthorHouse|year = 2009|isbn = 978-1449029579|pages = 50–51}}</ref> calling a person "ma'am" or "sir" in contradiction to the person's gender identity,<ref>{{Cite book|title = Looking Queer: Body Image and Identity in Lesbian, Bisexual, Gay, and Transgender Communities (Haworth Gay & Lesbian Studies)|last = DeCecco|first = John|publisher = Routledge|year = 2012|isbn = 978-0789004635|location = New Jersey}}</ref> using a person's previous, pre-transition name for them in place of their current name ("[[deadnaming]]"),<ref name="Bender-Baird-2011"/><ref>{{cite news |first=Meredith Ramirez |last=Talusan |title=What 'deadnaming' means, and why you shouldn't do it to Caitlyn Jenner |work=Fusion |date=4 June 2015 |url=http://fusion.net/story/144324/what-deadnaming-means-and-why-you-shouldnt-do-it-to-caitlyn-jenner/ |access-date=8 June 2015 |archive-date=7 February 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170207090153/http://fusion.net/story/144324/what-deadnaming-means-and-why-you-shouldnt-do-it-to-caitlyn-jenner/ |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Fae |first1=Jane |title= Changing your name should be a joyous moment, but for many it's a nightmare |url= https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2015/may/19/changing-your-name-nightmare-trans |work=The Guardian |location= London |access-date=8 July 2015 |date=19 May 2015}}</ref> or insisting that a person must adhere to the norms of their sex assigned at birth rather than the ones that align with their gender identity; for example, using a bathroom designated for males even though the person identifies as female.<ref>{{cite journal |last= McLemore |first= Kevin |date= July 2014 |title=Experiences with Misgendering: Identity Misclassification of Transgender Spectrum Individuals |journal= Self and Identity |volume= 14 |issue=1 |pages= 51–74 |doi=10.1080/15298868.2014.950691 |s2cid= 145101341}}</ref>

The experience of being misgendered is common for all transgender people before they transition, and for many afterwards as well.<ref>{{Cite book|title = Sexual Deceit: The Ethics of Passing|last = Harrison|first = Kelby|publisher = Lexington Books|year = 2013|isbn = 978-0739177051|pages = 12}}</ref> Transgender people are regularly misgendered by doctors,<ref name="Cisgenderism" /> police, media, and peers, experiences that have been described as "mortifying",<ref>{{Cite web |title=Cisgenderism in Medical Settings: Challenging Structural Violence Through Collaborative Partnerships |url=http://ansaraonline.com.p8.hostingprod.com/yahoo_site_admin/assets/docs/Chapter_Seven_Ansara_with_Reference.19690148.pdf|last = Ansara |first = Y. Gavriel |access-date = 20 September 2013|page = 95|archive-date=27 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221227155545/http://ansaraonline.com.p8.hostingprod.com/yahoo_site_admin/assets/docs/Chapter_Seven_Ansara_with_Reference.19690148.pdf}}</ref> cruel,<ref name="Di Menna-2013">{{Cite news|title = Gender Block: Media misgendering and Chelsea Manning|date = 16 September 2013|url = http://this.org/blog/2013/09/16/gender-block-media-misgendering-and-chelsea-manning/|last = Di Menna|first = Hillary |work= This Magazine}}</ref> and "only making our lives harder".<ref>{{Cite news|title = The happy story of my transgender coming-out |date=23 August 2013 |url= http://www.salon.com/2013/08/23/the_happy_story_of_my_transgender_coming_out/|last = Molloy|first = Parker Marie |work= Salon magazine}}</ref> A 2018 study of 129 transgender and other gender-expansive youth published in the ''[[Journal of Adolescent Health]]'', found that "for each additional social context in which a youth's chosen name was used, there was a statistically significant decrease in depressive symptoms, suicidal ideation, and suicidal behaviors,"<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Grossman|first1=Arnold H.|last2=Li|first2=Gu|last3=Pollitt|first3=Amanda M.|last4=Russell|first4=Stephen T.|date=1 October 2018|title=Chosen Name Use Is Linked to Reduced Depressive Symptoms, Suicidal Ideation, and Suicidal Behavior Among Transgender Youth|url=https://www.jahonline.org/article/S1054-139X(18)30085-5/abstract|journal=Journal of Adolescent Health |volume=63 |issue=4 |pages=503–505 |doi=10.1016/j.jadohealth.2018.02.003 |issn=1054-139X |pmc=6165713 |pmid=29609917}}</ref> though the study was "correlational so causality cannot be assumed, and the sample size was small."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Vance|first=Stanley R.|date=1 October 2018|title=The Importance of Getting the Name Right for Transgender and Other Gender Expansive Youth|url=https://www.jahonline.org/article/S1054-139X(18)30335-5/abstract|journal=Journal of Adolescent Health |volume=63 |issue=4 |pages=379–380 |doi=10.1016/j.jadohealth.2018.07.022 |issn=1054-139X |pmid=30286897 |doi-access=free|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Deliberately misgendering a transgender person is considered extremely offensive by transgender individuals.<ref name="Shapiro-2013">{{cite news |last=Shapiro |first=Lila |date=28 August 2013 |title=Shouting Disrupts Vigil For Murdered Transgender Woman Islan Nettles |work=Huffington Post |url= http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2013/08/28/islan-nettles_n_3832004.html}}</ref><ref name="Di Menna-2013" />