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=== Morphosyntax === Ubykh is agglutinative and polysynthetic: {{IPA|/ʃɨkʲʼɐjɨfɜnɜmɨt/}} ('we will not be able to go back'), {{IPA|/ɐwqʼɜqʼɜjtʼbɜ/}} ('if you had said it'). It is often extremely concise in its word forms. The boundaries between nouns and verbs is somewhat blurred. Any noun can be used as the root of a stative verb ({{IPA|/mɨzɨ/}} 'child', {{IPA|/sɨmɨzɨjtʼ/}} 'I was a child'), and many verb roots can become nouns simply by the use of noun affixes ({{IPA|/qʼɜ/}} 'to say', {{IPA|/sɨqʼɜ/}} 'what I say').<ref>Dumézil, G. 1975 Le verbe oubykh: études descriptives et comparatives (The Ubykh Verb: Descriptive and Comparative Studies). Paris: Imprimerie Nationale</ref><ref>Hewitt, B. G. 2005 North-West Caucasian. Lingua 115: 91-145.</ref> ==== Nouns ==== The noun system in Ubykh is quite simple. It has three main noun cases (the oblique-ergative case may be two homophonous cases with differing function, thus presenting four cases in total): * direct or [[absolutive case]], marked with the bare [[root (linguistics)|root]]; this indicates the [[subject (grammar)|subject]] of an intransitive sentence and the [[direct object]] of a transitive sentence (e.g. {{IPA|/tɨt/}} 'a man') * oblique-[[ergative case]], marked in -{{IPA|/n/}}; this indicates either the subject of a [[transitive verb|transitive]] sentence, targets of [[preverb]]s, or [[indirect object]]s which do not take any other suffixes ({{IPA|/mɨzɨn/}} '(to) a child') * [[locative case]], marked in -{{IPA|/ʁɜ/}}, which is the equivalent of English ''in'', ''on'' or ''at''. There are X other cases that exist in Ubykh too: * [[instrumental case]] (-{{IPA|/ɜwn(ɨ)/}}) was also treated as a case in Dumézil (1975). * [[Instrumental-comitative case|instrumental-comitative]] case (-{{IPA|/ɐlɜ/}}). * Another pair of [[postposition]]s, -{{IPA|/lɐq/}} ('to[wards]') and -{{IPA|/ʁɐfɜ/}} ('for'), have been noted as synthetic [[dative]]s (e.g. {{IPA|/ɜχʲɨlɐq ɜstʷɜdɜw/}} 'I will send it to the prince'), but their status as cases is also best discounted. Nouns do not distinguish [[grammatical gender]]. The [[definite article]] is {{IPA|/ɐ/}} (e.g. {{IPA|/ɐtɨt/}} 'the man'). There is no [[indefinite article]] directly equivalent to the English ''a'' or ''an'', but {{IPA|/zɜ/}}-(root)-{{IPA|/ɡʷɜrɜ/}} (literally 'one'-(root)-'certain') translates French ''un'' : e.g. {{IPA|/zɜnɜjnʃʷɡʷɜrɜ/}} ('a certain young man'). [[Grammatical number|Number]] is only marked on the noun in the ergative case, with -{{IPA|/nɜ/}}. The number marking of the absolutive argument is either by [[suppletion|suppletive]] verb roots (e.g. {{IPA|/ɐkʷɨn blɜs/}} 'he is in the car' vs. {{IPA|/ɐkʷɨn blɜʒʷɜ/}} 'they are in the car') or by verb suffixes: {{IPA|/ɐkʲʼɜn/}} ('he goes'), {{IPA|/ɐkʲʼɐn/}} ('they go'). The [[grammatical person|second person]] [[plural]] prefix {{IPA|/ɕʷ/}}- triggers this plural suffix regardless of whether that prefix represents the ergative, the absolutive, or an [[oblique argument]]: *Absolutive: {{IPA|/ɕʷɜstʷɐn/}} ('I give you all to him') *Oblique: {{IPA|/sɨɕʷɨntʷɐn/}} ('he gives me to you all') *Ergative: {{IPA|/ɐsɨɕʷtʷɐn/}} ('you all give it/them to me') Note that, in this last sentence, the plurality of ''it'' ({{IPA|/ɐ/}}-) is obscured; the meaning can be either 'You all give ''it'' to me' or 'You all give ''them'' to me'. [[Adjective]]s, in most cases, are simply suffixed to the noun: {{IPA|/tʃɨbʒɨjɜ/}} ('pepper') with {{IPA|/pɬɨ/}} ('red') becomes {{IPA|/tʃɨbʒɨjɜpɬɨ/}} ('red pepper'). Adjectives do not [[declension|decline]]. [[Postposition]]s are rare; most locative [[semantics|semantic]] functions, as well as some non-local ones, are provided with [[preverb]]al elements: {{IPA|/ɐsχʲɜwtxqʼɜ/}} ('you wrote it for me'). However, there are a few postpositions: {{IPA|/sɨʁʷɜ sɨɡʲɐtɕʼ/}} ('like me'), {{IPA|/ɐχʲɨlɐq/}} ('near the prince'). ==== Pronouns ==== Free pronouns in all North-West Caucasian languages lack an ergative-absolutive distinction.<ref name="fenwick" /> {| class="wikitable" |+Free personal pronouns | ! !First person !Second person !Third person |- ! rowspan="2" |Singular !Standard |{{IPA|/s(ɨ)ʁʷɜ/}} | rowspan="2" |{{IPA|/(w(ɨ))ʁʷɜ/}}(joc. {{IPA|/χɜʁʷɜ/}}) | rowspan="2" |{{IPA|/ɐʁʷɜ/}} |- !AB |{{IPA|/(s)χɜ/}} |- ! rowspan="3" |Plural !Standard |{{IPA|/ʃɨʁʷɜɬɜ/}} |{{IPA|/ɕʷɨʁʷɜɬɜ/}} | rowspan="3" |{{IPA|/ɐʁʷɜɬɜ/}} |- !Tevfik Esenç |{{IPA|/ʃɜɬɜ/}} |{{IPA|/ɕʷɜɬɜ/}} |- !Osman Güngür |{{IPA|/ʃɨʁʷɜ/}} |{{IPA|/ɕʷɨʁʷɜ/}} |} ===== Possession ===== {| class="wikitable" |+Possessive pronouns ! ! rowspan="2" |First person ! colspan="2" |Second person ! rowspan="2" |Third person |- ! !Normal !Jocular |- !Singular |{{IPA|/sɨ/}}- |{{IPA|/wɨ/}}- | rowspan="2" |{{IPA|/χɜ/}}- |{{IPA|/ʁɜ/}}- |- !Plural |{{IPA|/ʃɨ/}}- |{{IPA|/ɕʷɨ/}}- |{{IPA|/ɐʁɜ/}}- |} Possessed nouns have their plurality marked with the affix {{IPA|/-ɜw-/}}. {{fs interlinear|indent=3|italics2=no|italics3=yes |/ʃɜwtʃɨ/ |/ʃ(ɨ)-ɜw-tʃɨ/ |1.POSS-PL-horse |Our horses}} ==== Verbs ==== A [[past tense|past]]{{ndash}}[[present tense|present]]{{ndash}}[[future tense|future]] distinction of verb [[Grammatical tense|tense]] exists (the suffixes -{{IPA|/qʼɜ/}} and -{{IPA|/ɜwt/}} represent past and future) and an [[imperfective aspect]] suffix is also found (-{{IPA|/jtʼ/}}, which can combine with tense suffixes). Dynamic and stative verbs are contrasted, as in [[Arabic language|Arabic]], and verbs have several [[gerund|nominal]] forms. Morphological [[causative]]s are not uncommon. The conjunctions {{IPA|/ɡʲɨ/}} ('and') and {{IPA|/ɡʲɨlɜ/}} ('but') are usually given with verb suffixes, but there is also a free particle corresponding to each: *-{{IPA|/ɡʲɨ/}} 'and' (free particle {{IPA|/ve/}}, borrowed from Arabic); *-{{IPA|/ɡʲɨlɜ/}} 'but' (free particle {{IPA|/ɜʁʷɜ/}}) Pronominal [[benefactive]]s are also part of the verbal complex, marked with the preverb {{IPA|/χʲɜ/}}-, but a benefactive cannot normally appear on a verb that has three agreement prefixes already. [[Grammatical gender|Gender]] only appears as part of the [[grammatical person|second person]] paradigm, and then only at the speaker's discretion. The feminine second person index is {{IPA|/χɜ/}}-, which behaves like other pronominal prefixes: {{IPA|/wɨsχʲɜntʷɨn/}} ('he gives [it] to you [normal; gender-neutral] for me'), but compare {{IPA|/χɜsχʲɜntʷɨn/}} 'he gives [it] to you [feminine] for me'). ===== Agreement ===== Oblique 1 markers are limited to marking the agreement of a noun before a relational preverb and Oblique 2 markers are used for not only marking agreement with local and directional preverbs but also the simple oblique, or dative, arguments.<ref name="fenwick" /> {| class="wikitable" |+Pronominal Agreement Markers | | !Absolutive !Oblique (1 and 2) !Ergative |- ! rowspan="2" |First person !sg. |{{IPA|/s(ɨ)/-}} |{{IPA|/s(ɨ)/-}} ~ {{IPA|/z/}} |{{IPA|/s(ɨ)/-}} ~ {{IPA|/z/}} |- !pl. |{{IPA|/ʃ(ɨ)/-}} |{{IPA|/ʃ(ɨ)/-}} ~ {{IPA|/ʒ/-}} |{{IPA|/ʃ(ɨ)/-}} ~ {{IPA|/ʒ/-}} |- ! rowspan="3" |Second person !sg. |{{IPA|/wɨ/-}} |{{IPA|/w(ɨ)/-}} |{{IPA|/w(ɨ)/-}} |- !pl. |{{IPA|/ɕʷ(ɨ)/-}} |{{IPA|/ɕʷ(ɨ)/-}} ~ {{IPA|/ʑʷ(ɨ)/- }} |{{IPA|/ɕʷ(ɨ)/-}} ~ {{IPA|/ʑʷ(ɨ)/- }} |- !sg. (joc., arc.) |{{IPA|/χɜ/-}} |{{IPA|/χɜ/-}} |{{IPA|/χɜ/-}} |- ! rowspan="2" |Third person !sg. |{{IPA|/ɐ/-, /jɨ/-, /ɨ/-, /Ø/-}} |{{IPA|/Ø/-}} |{{IPA|n(ɨ)/- /Ø/-}} |- !pl. |{{IPA|/ɐ/-, /jɨ/-, /Ø/-}} |{{IPA|/ɐ/-}} |{{IPA|/ɐ/-, /nɐ/-}} |} The second-person {{IPA|/χɜ/-}} is an archaic pronoun used to indicate that the person being referred to is a female, or heckling the speaker in some way. ===== Dynamic verb conjugation ===== Dynamic Ubykh verbs are split up in two groups: Group I which contain the simple tenses and Group II which contain derived counterpart tenses. Only the Karaclar dialect uses the progressive tense and the plural is unknown. The singular-plural distinction is used when the subject, the ergative, is singular or plural. Square brackets indicate elided vowels; parenthesis indicate optional parts of the stem; and the colon indicates the boundary of a morpheme.<ref name="fenwick" /> {| class="wikitable" |+Group I | !Singular !Plural |- !Simple Past | -{{IPA|/qʼɜ/}} |<nowiki>-</nowiki>{{IPA|/qʼɜ-n(ɜ)/}} |- !Mirative Past |<nowiki>-</nowiki>{{IPA|/jtʼ/}} |<nowiki>-</nowiki>{{IPA|/jɬ(ɜ)/}} |- !Present |<nowiki>-</nowiki>{{IPA|/n/}} |<nowiki>-</nowiki>{{IPA|/ɐ-n/}} |- !Future I |<nowiki>-</nowiki>{{IPA|/ɜw/}} |<nowiki>-</nowiki>{{IPA|/n[ɜ]-ɜw/}} |- !Future II |<nowiki>-</nowiki>{{IPA|/ɜwːt/}} |<nowiki>-</nowiki>{{IPA|/n[ɜ]-ɜwːt/}} |- !(Progressive) |<nowiki>-</nowiki>{{IPA|/ɜwɨːn/}} |? |} {| class="wikitable" |+Group II | !Singular !Plural |- !Pluperfect |<nowiki>-</nowiki>{{IPA|/qʼɜːjtʼ/}} |<nowiki>-</nowiki>{{IPA|/qʼɜːjɬ(ɜ)/}} ~ -/qʼɜːnɜːjtʼ/ |- !Imperfect |<nowiki>-</nowiki>{{IPA|/nɜːtjʼ/}} |<nowiki>-</nowiki>{{IPA|/ɐ-nɜːjɬ(ɜ)/}} |- !Conditional I |<nowiki>-</nowiki>{{IPA|/ɜwɨːjtʼ/}} |<nowiki>-</nowiki>{{IPA|/n[ɜ]-ɜwɨːjɬ(ɜ)/}} |- !Conditional II |<nowiki>-</nowiki>{{IPA|/ɜwːtʷːqʼɜ/}} |<nowiki>-</nowiki>{{IPA|/(n[ɜ]-)ɜwːtʷːqʼɜ(-n)/}} |} ====== Simple past ====== The verbs in the simple past tense are conjugated with -{{IPA|/qʼɜ/}} in the singular and <nowiki>-</nowiki>{{IPA|/qʼɜ-n(ɜ)/}} in the plural. Examples: * {{IPA|/qʼɜ/}} - to say → {{IPA|/ɐ-qʼɜ-qʼɜ/}} (s)he said * {{IPA|/fɨ/}} - to eat → {{IPA|/ɐ-fɨ-qʼɜ/}} (s)he ate * {{IPA|/tɕʼɜ/}} - to know → {{IPA|/ɐ-tɕʼɜ-qʼɜ/}} (s)he knew * {{IPA|/kʲʼɜ/}} - to go → {{IPA|/ɐ-kʲʼɜ-qʼɜ/}} (s)he went {| class="wikitable" !Plurality !Person !Ubykh !Meaning |- ! rowspan="3" |Singular !First-person |{{IPA|/s(ɨ)-fɨ-qʼɜ/}} |I ate |- !Second-person |{{IPA|/wɨ-fɨ-qʼɜ/}} |you ate |- !Third-person |{{IPA|/ɐ-fɨ-qʼɜ/}} |(s)he ate |- ! rowspan="3" |Plural !First-person |{{IPA|/ʃ(ɨ)-fɨ-qʼɜ-n(ɜ)/}} |we ate |- !Second-person |{{IPA|/ɕʷ(ɨ)-fɨ-qʼɜ-n(ɜ)/}} |you (all) ate |- !Third-person |{{IPA|/ɐ-fɨ-qʼɜ-n(ɜ)/}} |they ate |} ====== Mirative past ====== The verbs in the mirative past tense are conjugated with <nowiki>-</nowiki>{{IPA|/jtʼ/}} in the singular and <nowiki>-</nowiki>{{IPA|/jɬ(ɜ)/}} in the plural. Examples: * {{IPA|/qʼɜ/}} - to say → {{IPA|/ɐ-qʼɜ-jtʼ/}} (s)he said apparently * {{IPA|/fɨ/}} - to eat → {{IPA|/ɐ-fɨ-jtʼ/}} (s)he ate apparently * {{IPA|/tɕʼɜ/}} - to know → {{IPA|/ɐ-tɕʼɜ-jtʼ/}} (s)he knew apparently * {{IPA|/kʲʼɜ/}} - to go → {{IPA|/ɐ-kʲʼɜ-jtʼ/}} (s)he went apparently {| class="wikitable" !Plurality !Person !Ubykh !Meaning |- ! rowspan="3" |Singular !First-person |{{IPA|/s(ɨ)-fɨ-jtʼ/}} |I ate apparently |- !Second-person |{{IPA|/wɨ-fɨ-jtʼ/}} |you ate apparently |- !Third-person |{{IPA|/ɐ-fɨ-jtʼ/}} |(s)he ate apparently |- ! rowspan="3" |Plural !First-person |{{IPA|/ʃ(ɨ)-fɨ-jɬ(ɜ)/}} |we ate apparently |- !Second-person |{{IPA|/ɕʷ(ɨ)-fɨ-jɬ(ɜ)/}} |you (all) ate apparently |- !Third-person |{{IPA|/ɐ-fɨ-jɬ(ɜ)/}} |they ate apparently |} ====== Present ====== The verbs in the present tense are conjugated with <nowiki>-</nowiki>{{IPA|/n/}} in the singular and <nowiki>-</nowiki>{{IPA|/ɐ-n/}} in the plural. Examples: * {{IPA|/qʼɜ/}} - to say → {{IPA|/ɐ-qʼɜ-n/}} (s)he says * {{IPA|/fɨ/}} - to eat → {{IPA|/ɐ-fɨ-n/}} (s)he eats * {{IPA|/tɕʼɜ/}} - to know → {{IPA|/ɐ-tɕʼɜ-n/}} (s)he knows * {{IPA|/kʲʼɜ/}} - to go → {{IPA|/ɐ-kʲʼɜ-n/}} (s)he goes {| class="wikitable" !Plurality !Person !Ubykh !Meaning |- ! rowspan="3" |Singular !First-person |{{IPA|/s(ɨ)-fɨ-n/}} |I eat |- !Second-person |{{IPA|/wɨ-fɨ-n/}} |you eat |- !Third-person |{{IPA|/ɐ-fɨ-n/}} |(s)he eats |- ! rowspan="3" |Plural !First-person |{{IPA|/ʃ(ɨ)-f-ɐ-n/}} |we eat |- !Second-person |{{IPA|/ɕʷ(ɨ)-f-ɐ-n/}} |you (all) eat |- !Third-person |{{IPA|/ɐ-f-ɐ-n/}} |they eat |} ====== Future I ====== The verbs in the present tense are conjugated with <nowiki>-</nowiki>{{IPA|/ɜw/}} in the singular and <nowiki>-</nowiki>{{IPA|/n[ɜ]-ɜw/}} in the plural. It conveys a sense of certainty, immediacy, obligation, or intentionality. Examples: * {{IPA|/qʼɜ/}} - to say → {{IPA|/ɐ-qʼ-ɜw/}} (s)he certainly will say * {{IPA|/fɨ/}} - to eat → {{IPA|/ɐ-f-ɜw/}} (s)he certainly will eat * {{IPA|/tɕʼɜ/}} - to know → {{IPA|/ɐ-tɕʼ-ɜw/}} (s)he certainly will know * {{IPA|/kʲʼɜ/}} - to go → {{IPA|/ɐ-kʲʼ-ɜw/}} (s)he certainly will go {| class="wikitable" !Plurality !Person !Ubykh !Meaning |- ! rowspan="3" |Singular !First-person |{{IPA|/s(ɨ)-fɨ-n[ɜ]-ɜw/}} |I certainly will eat |- !Second-person |{{IPA|/wɨ-fɨ-n[ɜ]-ɜw/}} |you certainly will eat |- !Third-person |{{IPA|/ɐ-fɨ-n[ɜ]-ɜw/}} |(s)he certainly will eat |- ! rowspan="3" |Plural !First-person |{{IPA|/ʃ(ɨ)-fɨ-n[ɜ]-ɜw/}} |we certainly will eat |- !Second-person |{{IPA|/ɕʷ(ɨ)-fɨ-n[ɜ]-ɜw/}} |you (all) certainly will eat |- !Third-person |{{IPA|/ɐ-fɨ-n[ɜ]-ɜw/}} |they certainly will eat |} ====== Future II ====== The verbs in the present tense are conjugated with <nowiki>-</nowiki>{{IPA|/ɜwːt/}} in the singular and <nowiki>-</nowiki>{{IPA|/n[ɜ]-ɜwːt/}} in the plural. It conveys a generic sense of the future as well as an exhortative sense such as: {{IPA|/ʃɨ-kʲʼɜ-n[ɜ]-ɜw/}} (let's go!). Examples: * {{IPA|/qʼɜ/}} - to say → {{IPA|/ɐ-qʼ-ɜwːt/}} (s)he will say * {{IPA|/fɨ/}} - to eat → {{IPA|/ɐ-f-ɜwːt/}} (s)he will eat * {{IPA|/tɕʼɜ/}} - to know → {{IPA|/ɐ-tɕʼ-ɜwːt/}} (s)he will know * {{IPA|/kʲʼɜ/}} - to go → {{IPA|/ɐ-kʲʼ-ɜwːt/}} (s)he will go {| class="wikitable" !Plurality !Person !Ubykh !Meaning |- ! rowspan="3" |Singular !First-person |{{IPA|/s(ɨ)-f-ɜwːt/}} |I will eat |- !Second-person |{{IPA|/wɨ-f-ɜwːt/}} |you will eat |- !Third-person |{{IPA|/ɐ-f-ɜwːt/}} |(s)he will eat |- ! rowspan="3" |Plural !First-person |{{IPA|/ʃ(ɨ)-fɨ-n[ɜ]-ɜwːt/}} |we will eat |- !Second-person |{{IPA|/ɕʷ(ɨ)-fɨ-n[ɜ]-ɜwːt/}} |you (all) will eat |- !Third-person |{{IPA|/ɐ-fɨ-n[ɜ]-ɜwːt/}} |they will eat |} ===== Static verb conjugation ===== In all dialects and speakers, only two static tenses exist: present and past. {| class="wikitable" |+ ! !Singular !Plural |- !Present |<nowiki>-</nowiki>{{IPA|/Ø/}} |<nowiki>-</nowiki>{{IPA|/n(ɜ)/}} |- !Past |<nowiki>-</nowiki>{{IPA|/jtʼ/}} |<nowiki>-</nowiki>{{IPA|/jɬ(ɜ)/}} |} ===== Aspect ===== There are five basic aspects that exist besides the aspects that exist within the Ubykh tense system. They are: habitual, iterative, exhaustive, excessive, and potential. A speaker may combine one of these aspects with another to convey more complex aspects in conjunction with the tenses.<ref name="fenwick" /> {| class="wikitable" |+ !habitual |<nowiki>-</nowiki>{{IPA|/ɡʲɜ/}} |- !iterative |<nowiki>-</nowiki>{{IPA|/ɐj(ɨ)/}} |- !exhaustive |<nowiki>-</nowiki>{{IPA|/lɜ/}} |- !excessive |<nowiki>-</nowiki>{{IPA|/tɕʷɜ/}} |- !potential |<nowiki>-</nowiki>{{IPA|/fɜ/}} |} A few meanings covered in [[English language|English]] by [[adverb]]s or [[auxiliary verb]]s are given in Ubykh by verb suffixes: * {{IPA|/ɐsfɨfɜn/}} ('I can eat it') - {{IPA|/ɐzdʑʷɜfɜn/}} ('I can drink it') * {{IPA|/ɐsfɨɡʲɜn/}} ('I eat it all the time') - {{IPA|/ɐzdʑʷɜɡʲɜn/}} ('I drink it all the time') * {{IPA|/ɐsfɨlɜn/}} ('I am eating it all up') - {{IPA|/ɐzdʑʷɜlɜn/}} ('I am drinking it all up') * {{IPA|/ɐsfɨtɕʷɜn/}} ('I eat it too much') - {{IPA|/ɐzdʑʷɜtɕʷɜn/}} ('I drink it too much') * {{IPA|/ɐsfɐjɨn/}} ('I eat it again') - {{IPA|/ɐzdʑʷɐjɨn/}} ('I drink it again') {| class="wikitable" |+example of Ubykh verbal aspects ! rowspan="2" | ! colspan="2" | First person ! colspan="2" | Second person ! colspan="2" | Third person |- ! {{small|singular}} !! {{small|plural}} ! {{small|singular}} !! {{small|plural}} ! {{small|singular}} !! {{small|plural}} |- ! simple | {{IPA|/s(ɨ)-fɨ-n/}} | {{IPA|/ʃ(ɨ)-f-ɐ-n/}} | {{IPA|/wɨ-fɨ-n/}} | {{IPA|/ɕʷ(ɨ)-f-ɐ-n/}} | {{IPA|/ɐ-fɨ-n/}} | {{IPA|/ɐ-f-ɐ-n/}} |- ! habitual | {{IPA|/s(ɨ)-fɨ-ɡʲɜ-n/}} | {{IPA|/ʃ(ɨ)-f-ɡʲ[ɜ]-ɐ-n/}} | {{IPA|/wɨ-fɨ-ɡʲɜ-n/}} | {{IPA|/ɕʷ(ɨ)-fɨ-ɡʲ[ɜ]-ɐ-n/}} | {{IPA|/ɐ-fɨ-ɡʲɜ-n/}} | {{IPA|/ɐ-fɨ-ɡʲ[ɜ]-ɐ-n/}} |- ! iterative | {{IPA|/s(ɨ)-f-ɐj(ɨ)-n/}} | {{IPA|/ʃ(ɨ)-f-ɐj(ɨ)-ɐ-n/}} | {{IPA|/wɨ-f-ɐj(ɨ)-n/}} | {{IPA|/ɕʷ(ɨ)-f-ɐj(ɨ)-ɐ-n/}} | {{IPA|/ɐ-f-ɐj(ɨ)-n/}} | {{IPA|/ɐ-f-ɐj(ɨ)-ɐ-n/}} |- ! exhaustive | {{IPA|/s(ɨ)-fɨ-lɜ-n/}} | {{IPA|/ʃ(ɨ)-fɨ-l[ɜ]-ɐ-n/}} | {{IPA|/wɨ-fɨ-lɜ-n/}} | {{IPA|/ɕʷ(ɨ)-fɨ-l[ɜ]-ɐ-n/}} | {{IPA|/ɐ-fɨ-lɜ-n/}} | {{IPA|/ɐ-fɨ-l[ɜ]-ɐ-n/}} |- ! excessive | {{IPA|/s(ɨ)-fɨ-tɕʷɜ-n/}} | {{IPA|/ʃ(ɨ)-fɨ-tɕʷ[ɜ]-ɐ-n/}} | {{IPA|/wɨ-fɨ-tɕʷɜ-n/}} | {{IPA|/ɕʷ(ɨ)-fɨ-tɕʷ[ɜ]-ɐ-n/}} | {{IPA|/ɐ-fɨ-tɕʷɜ-n/}} | {{IPA|/ɐ-fɨ-tɕʷ[ɜ]-ɐ-n/}} |- ! potential | {{IPA|/s(ɨ)-fɨ-fɜ-n/}} | {{IPA|/ʃ(ɨ)-fɨ-f[ɜ]-ɐ-n/}} | {{IPA|/wɨ-fɨ-fɜ-n/}} | {{IPA|/ɕʷ(ɨ)-fɨ-f[ɜ]-ɐ-n/}} | {{IPA|/ɐ-fɨ-fɜ-n/}} | {{IPA|/ɐ-fɨ-f[ɜ]-ɐ-n/}} |} ==== Questions ==== [[Question]]s may be marked grammatically, using verb suffixes or prefixes: *Yes{{ndash}}no questions with -{{IPA|/ɕ/}}: {{IPA|/wɜnɜ ɐwbjɜqʼɜɕ/}}? ('did you see that?') *Complex questions with -{{IPA|/j/}}: {{IPA|/sɐkʲʼɜ wɨpʼtsʼɜj/}}? ('what is your name?') Other types of questions, involving the pronouns 'where' and 'what', may also be marked only in the verbal complex: {{IPA|/mɐwkʲʼɜnɨj/}} ('where are you going?'), {{IPA|/sɐwqʼɜqʼɜjtʼɨj/}} ('what had you said?'). ==== Preverbs and determinants ==== Many local, prepositional, and other functions are provided by [[preverb]]al elements providing a large series of [[applicative voice|applicative]]s, and here Ubykh shows remarkable complexity. Two main types of preverbal elements exist: determinants and preverbs. The number of preverbs is limited, and mainly show [[Location (geography)|location]] and [[Direction (geometry, geography)|direction]]. The number of determinants is also limited, but the class is more [[open class word|open]]; some determinant prefixes include {{IPA|/tʃɜ/}}- ('with regard to a horse') and {{IPA|/ɬɜ/}}- ('with regard to the foot or base of an object'). For simple locations, there are a number of possibilities that can be encoded with preverbs, including (but not limited to): * above and touching * above and not touching * below and touching * below and not touching * at the side of * through a space * through solid matter * on a flat horizontal surface * on a non-horizontal or vertical surface * in a homogeneous mass * towards * in an upward direction * in a downward direction * into a tubular space * into an enclosed space There is also a separate directional preverb meaning 'towards the speaker': {{IPA|/j/}}-, which occupies a separate slot in the verbal complex. However, preverbs can have meanings that would take up entire phrases in English. The preverb {{IPA|/jtɕʷʼɐ/}}- signifies 'on the earth' or 'in the earth', for instance: {{IPA|/ʁɜdjɜ ɐjtɕʷʼɐnɐɬqʼɜ/}} ('they buried his body'; literally, "they put his body in the earth"). Even more narrowly, the preverb {{IPA|/fɐ/}}- signifies that an action is done out of, into or with regard to a fire: {{IPA|/ɐmdʒɜn zɜtʃɨtʃɜqʲɜ fɐstχʷɨn/}} ('I take a brand out of the fire').
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