Editing Urban design (section)

===Modern urban design===

[[File:Lorategi-hiriaren diagrama 1902.jpg|thumb|right|[[Ebenezer Howard]]'s influential 1902 diagram, illustrating urban growth through [[Garden city movement|garden city]] "off-shoots"]]

In the 19th century, cities were industrializing and expanding at a tremendous rate. Private businesses largely dictated the pace and style of this development. The expansion created many hardships for the [[working poor]] and concern for public health increased. However, the [[laissez-faire]] style of government, in fashion for most of the [[Victorian era]], was starting to give way to a [[Social liberalism|New Liberalism]]. This gave more power to the public. The public wanted the government to provide citizens, especially factory workers, with healthier environments. Around 1900, modern urban design emerged from developing theories on how to mitigate the consequences of the [[industrial age]].

The first modern [[urban planning]] theorist was Sir [[Ebenezer Howard]]. His ideas, although utopian, were adopted around the world because they were highly practical. He initiated the [[garden city movement]].<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LFLydtcQf54C|title=Urban and Regional Planning|author=Peter Hall, Mark Tewdwr-Jones|year=2010|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9780203861424}}</ref> in 1898.
His garden cities were intended to be planned, self-contained communities surrounded by parks. Howard wanted the cities to be proportional with separate areas of residences, industry, and agriculture. Inspired by the [[Utopian]] novel ''[[Looking Backward]]'' and [[Henry George]]'s work ''[[Progress and Poverty]]'', Howard published his book ''[[Garden Cities of To-morrow]]'' in 1898. His work is an important reference in the history of [[urban planning]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.rudi.net/node/6597|title=To-morrow: A Peaceful Path to Real Reform}}</ref> He envisioned the self-sufficient garden city to house 32,000 people on a site of {{convert|6000|acres|0|abbr=on}}. He planned on a [[concentric]] pattern with open spaces, public parks, and six radial [[boulevard]]s, {{convert|120|ft|m|abbr=on}} wide, extending from the center. When it reached full population, Howard wanted another garden city to be developed nearby. He envisaged a cluster of several garden cities as [[satellite town|satellites]] of a central city of 50,000 people, linked by road and rail.<ref>{{Citation | last = Goodall | first = B | year = 1987 | title = Dictionary of Human Geography | place = London | publisher = Penguin}}.</ref> His model for a garden city was first created at [[Letchworth]]<ref name="TCPA">{{Citation | url = http://www.tcpa.org.uk/data/files/18991999.pdf | title = History 1899–1999 | publisher = TCPA | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110727123822/http://www.tcpa.org.uk/data/files/18991999.pdf | archive-date = 2011-07-27 }}.</ref> and [[Welwyn Garden City]] in [[Hertfordshire]]. Howard's movement was extended by [[Frederic Osborn|Sir Frederic Osborn]] to regional planning.<ref name="TCPA"/>

====20th century====
In the early 1900s, urban planning became professionalized. With input from [[utopia]]n visionaries, civil engineers, and [[local government|local councilors]], new approaches to city design were developed for consideration by decision-makers such as elected officials. In 1899, the [[Town and Country Planning Association]] was founded. In 1909, the first academic course on urban planning was offered by the [[University of Liverpool]].<ref>{{Cite book|editor1-first=Robert|editor1-last=Freestone|date=2000-06-22|title=Urban Planning in a Changing World|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9780203819630|doi=10.4324/9780203819630|isbn=9781136744600}}</ref> Urban planning was first officially embodied in the [[Housing, Town Planning, &c. Act 1909|Housing and Town Planning Act of 1909]] Howard's 'garden city' compelled local authorities to introduce a system where all housing construction conformed to specific building standards.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.parliament.uk/about/living-heritage/transformingsociety/towncountry/towns/overview/townplanning/|title=The birth of town planning}}</ref> In the United Kingdom following this Act, [[surveying|surveyor]], [[civil engineer]]s, [[architect]]s, and [[lawyer]]s began working together within [[municipal government|local authorities]]. In 1910, [[Thomas Adams (architect)|Thomas Adams]] became the first Town Planning Inspector at the [[Local Government Board]] and began meeting with practitioners. In 1914, The [[Town Planning Institute]] was established. The first [[urban planning]] course in America was not established until 1924 at [[Harvard University]]. Professionals developed schemes for the development of land, transforming town planning into a new area of expertise.

In the 20th century, urban planning was changed by the [[automobile]] industry. Car-oriented design impacted the rise of 'urban design'. City layouts now revolved around roadways and traffic patterns.

In June 1928, [[Congrès Internationaux d'Architecture Moderne|the International Congresses of Modern Architecture (CIAM)]] was founded at the Chateau de [[la Sarraz]] in Switzerland, by a group of 28 European architects organized by [[Le Corbusier]], [[Hélène de Mandrot]], and [[Sigfried Giedion]]. The CIAM was one of many 20th century [[manifesto]]s meant to advance the cause of "architecture as a social art".
<gallery mode="packed" caption="Modernism">
File:Rodoviária do Plano Piloto.jpg|[[Brasília]] ([[Oscar Niemeyer]], [[Lúcio Costa]])
File:Palace of Assembly Chandigarh 2006.jpg|[[Palace of Assembly (Chandigarh)]] (1952–1961) ([[Le Corbusier]])
File:United Nations HQ - New York City.jpg|[[Headquarters of the United Nations]]
File:FDR Drive approaching Brooklyn Bridge.jpg|[[FDR Drive]] designed by [[Robert Moses]]
</gallery>

=====Postwar=====
Team X was a group of architects and other invited participants who assembled starting in July 1953 at the 9th Congress of the [[Congrès Internationaux d'Architecture Moderne|International Congresses of Modern Architecture (CIAM)]] and created a schism within CIAM by challenging its doctrinaire approach to [[urbanism]].

In 1956, the term "Urban design" was first used at a series of conferences hosted by Harvard University. The event provided a platform for Harvard's Urban Design program. The program also utilized the writings of famous [[urban planning]] thinkers: [[Gordon Cullen]], [[Jane Jacobs]], [[Kevin A. Lynch|Kevin Lynch]], and [[Christopher Alexander]].

In 1961, [[Gordon Cullen]] published ''The Concise Townscape''. He examined the traditional artistic approach to city design of theorists including Camillo Sitte, Barry Parker, and [[Raymond Unwin]]. Cullen also created the concept of 'serial vision'. It defined the urban landscape as a series of related spaces.
[[File:Jane Jacobs.jpg|thumb|[[Jane Jacobs]], urban design activist and author of ''[[The Death and Life of Great American Cities]]''.]]
Also in 1961, [[Jane Jacobs]] published ''[[The Death and Life of Great American Cities]]''. She critiqued the [[modernism]] of [[Congrès Internationaux d'Architecture Moderne|CIAM]] (International Congresses of Modern Architecture). Jacobs also claimed [[crime rate]]s in publicly owned spaces were rising because of the Modernist approach of 'city in the park'. She argued instead for an 'eyes on the street' approach to town planning through the resurrection of main public space precedents (e.g. streets, squares).

In the same year, [[Kevin A. Lynch|Kevin Lynch]] published ''[[The Image of the City]]''. He was seminal to urban design, particularly with regards to the concept of legibility. He reduced urban design theory to five basic elements: paths, districts, edges, nodes, landmarks. He also made the use of mental maps to understand the city popular, rather than the two-dimensional physical master plans of the previous 50 years.

Other notable works:

* ''Architecture of the City'' by [[Aldo Rossi]] (1966)
* ''Learning from Las Vegas'' by [[Robert Venturi]] and [[Denise Scott Brown]] (1972)
* ''Collage City'' by [[Colin Rowe]] (1978)
* ''The Next American Metropolis'' by [[Peter Calthorpe]] (1993)
* ''The Social Logic of Space'' by Bill Hillier and Julienne Hanson (1984)

The popularity of these works resulted in terms that become everyday language in the field of [[urban planning]]. Aldo Rossi introduced 'historicism' and 'collective memory' to urban design. Rossi also proposed a 'collage metaphor' to understand the collection of new and old forms within the same urban space. Peter Calthorpe developed a manifesto for sustainable urban living via medium-density living. He also designed a manual for building new settlements in his concept of [[Transit-oriented development|Transit Oriented Development]] (TOD). Bill Hillier and Julienne Hanson introduced [[Space Syntax]] to predict how movement patterns in cities would contribute to urban vitality, anti-social behaviour, and economic success. 'Sustainability', 'livability', and 'high quality of urban components' also became commonplace in the field.

====Current trends====
<gallery mode="packed" caption="New Urbanism">
File:Celebration fl.JPG|Market Street, [[Celebration, Florida]]
File:Sankt Eriksområdet 2014, 1.JPG|New urbanist Sankt Eriksområdet quarter in Stockholm, Sweden, built in the 1990s
File:Queen Mother SQUARE, Poundbury, Dorset.jpg|[[Poundbury]], Dorset
</gallery>
[[File:Jakriborg, juni 2005 c.jpg|thumb|[[Jakriborg]], in Sweden, started in the late 1990s as a [[New Urbanism|new urbanist]] eco-friendly [[Planned community|new town]] near [[Malmö]]]]
Today, urban design seeks to create [[sustainable city|sustainable urban]] environments with long-lasting structures, buildings, and overall livability. [[Walkability|Walkable]] urbanism is another approach to practice that is defined within the ''Charter of [[New Urbanism]]''. It aims to reduce environmental impacts by altering the built environment to create smart cities that support [[sustainable transport]]. Compact urban neighborhoods encourage residents to drive less. These neighborhoods have significantly lower environmental impacts when compared to [[urban sprawl|sprawling]] suburbs.<ref>Ewing, R [http://www.smartgrowthamerica.org/gcindex.html "Growing Cooler - the Evidence on Urban Development and Climate Change"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101224212241/http://smartgrowthamerica.org/gcindex.html |date=2010-12-24 }}. Retrieved on: 2009-03-16.</ref> To prevent urban sprawl, [[Circular flow land use management]] was introduced in Europe to promote sustainable land use patterns.

As a result of the recent [[New Classical Architecture]] movement, [[sustainable architecture|sustainable construction]] aims to develop [[smart growth]], walkability, [[Vernacular architecture|architectural tradition]], and [[Classical architecture|classical design]].<ref>[http://www.cnu.org/charter Charter of the New Urbanism]</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Beauty, Humanism, Continuity between Past and Future|url=http://www.traditionalarchitecture.co.uk/aims.html|publisher=Traditional Architecture Group|access-date=23 March 2014|archive-date=5 March 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180305215635/http://www.traditionalarchitecture.co.uk/aims.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> It contrasts with [[Modern architecture|modernist]] and [[International Style (architecture)|globally uniform]] architecture. In the 1980s, urban design began to oppose the increasing solitary [[housing estate]]s and [[Urban sprawl|suburban sprawl]].<ref>[http://www.aia.org/SiteObjects/files/smartgrowth05.pdf Issue Brief: Smart-Growth: Building Livable Communities] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181119170943/https://www.aia.org/SiteObjects/files/smartgrowth05.pdf |date=2018-11-19 }}. American Institute of Architects. Retrieved on 2014-03-23.</ref>
Managed Urbanisation with the view to making the urbanising process completely culturally and economically, and environmentally sustainable, and as a possible solution to the [[urban sprawl]], Frank Reale has submitted an interesting concept of [https://sites.google.com/view/managedurbanisation/ Expanding Nodular Development (E.N.D.)] that integrates many urban designs and ecological principles, to design and build smaller rural hubs with high-grade connecting freeways, rather than adding more expensive infrastructure to existing big cities and the resulting congestion.

==== Paradigm shifts ====
Throughout the young existence of the Urban Design discipline, many paradigm shifts have occurred that have affected the trajectory of the field regarding theory and practice. These paradigm shifts cover multiple subject areas outside of the traditional design disciplines.

* Team 10 - The first major paradigm shift was the formation of Team 10 out of CIAM, or the [[Congrès Internationaux d'Architecture Moderne|Congres Internationaux d'Architecture Moderne]]. They believed that Urban Design should introduce ideas of 'Human Association', which pivots the design focus from the individual patron to concentrating on the collective urban population.
* The Brundtland Report and Silent Spring - Another paradigm shift was the publication of the [[Brundtland Report]] and the book [[Silent Spring]] by Rachel Carson. These writings introduced the idea that human settlements could have detrimental impacts on ecological processes, as well as human health, which spurred a new era of environmental awareness in the field.  
* The Planner's Triangle - The Planner's Triangle, created by Scott Cambell, emphasized three main conflicts in the planning process. This diagram exposed the complex relationships between Economic Development, Environmental Protection, and Equity and Social Justice. For the first time, the concept of Equity and Social Justice was considered as equally important as Economic Development and Environmental Protection within the design process.
* Death of Modernism (Demolition of Pruitt Igoe) - Pruitt Igoe was a spatial symbol and representation of Modernist theory regarding social housing. In its failure and demolition, these theories were put into question and many within the design field considered the era of Modernism to be dead.  
* Neoliberalism & the election of Reagan - The election of President Reagan and the rise of [[Neoliberalism]] affected the Urban Design discipline because it shifted the planning process to emphasize capitalistic gains and spatial privatization. Inspired by the trickle-down approach of Reaganomics, it was believed that the benefits of a capitalist emphasis within design would positively impact everyone. Conversely, this led to exclusionary design practices and to what many consider as "the death of public space".
* Right to the City - The spatial and political battle over our citizens' rights to the city has been an ongoing one. David Harvey, along with Dan Mitchell and Edward Soja, discussed rights to the city as a matter of shifting the historical thinking of how spatial matter was determined in a critical form. This change of thinking occurred in three forms: ontologically, sociologically, and the combination of this socio-spatial dialect. Together the aim shifted to be able to measure what matters in a socio-spatial context.  
* Black Lives Matter (Ferguson) - The [[Black Lives Matter]] movement challenged design thinking because it emphasized the injustices and inequities suffered by people of color in urban space, as well as emphasized their right to public space without discrimination and brutality. It claims that minority groups lack certain spatial privileges and that this deficiency can result in matters of life and death. In order to reach an equitable state of urbanism, there needs to be equal identification of socio-economic lives within our urbanscapes.