Editing Userkaf (section)

== Reign ==
[[File:Abydos KL 05-01 n26.jpg|thumb|upright|alt=Relief showing hieroglyphs in a cartouche|Cartouche of Userkaf on the [[Abydos king list]]]]

===Duration===
The exact duration of Userkaf's reign is unknown. Given the historical and archeological evidence, the consensus among Egyptologists is that he ruled for seven to eight years{{sfn|Helck|1981|p=63}}{{sfn|Grimal|1992|p=76}}{{sfn|Malek|2000a|pp=98–99}}{{sfn|Beckerath|1997|p=155}} at the start of Egypt's Fifth Dynasty.{{sfn|Lehner|2008|p=140}} First, an analysis of the nearly contemporaneous [[Palermo stone|Old Kingdom royal annals]] shows that Userkaf's reign was recorded on eight compartments corresponding to at least seven full years but not much more.{{efn|group=note|Older analyses of the document by Breasted and Daressy had already established that Userkaf reigned 12 to 14 years{{sfn|Breasted|1906|pp=68–69|loc=§ 153–160}} or 12 to 13 years{{sfn|Daressy|1912|p=206}} respectively.}}{{sfn|Hornung et al.|2012|p=484}} The latest legible year recorded on the annals for Userkaf is that of his third [[Cattle count (Egypt)|cattle count]], to evaluate the amount of taxes to be levied on the population. This significant event is believed to have been [[wikt:biennial|biennial]] during the Old Kingdom period, meaning that the third cattle count represents the sixth year of his reign. The same count is also attested in a mason's inscription found on a stone of Userkaf's sun temple.{{efn|group=note|Four mentions of the "year of the fifth cattle count" were also discovered on stone tablets from Userkaf's sun temple,{{sfn|Verner|2001a|p=386}} which could indicate that Userkaf reigned for 10 years. However, these inscriptions are incomplete. In particular the name of the king to whose reign they belong is lost, and they might instead refer to Sahure's rule{{sfn|Verner|2001a|pp=388–390}} or to Neferirkare's{{sfn|Kaiser|1956|p=108}} rather than that of Userkaf.{{sfn|Verner|2001a|pp=386–387}}{{sfn|Strudwick|2005|p=158}} The attribution of these inscriptions to either Sahure or Neferirkare is paramount in determining who completed Userkaf's sun temple, which was unfinished at his death.{{sfn|Verner|2001a|pp=386–387}} The tablets detail the division of labour during works on the ''Nekhenre''.{{sfn|Strudwick|2005|p=158|loc=fn. 2}}}}{{sfn|Verner|2001a|p=386}} Second, Userkaf is given a reign of seven years on the third column, row 17, of the [[Turin King List|Turin Royal Canon]],{{sfn|Verner|2001a|p=385}} a document copied during the reign of [[Ramesses II]] from earlier sources.{{sfn|Hornung et al.|2012|p=136}} Third, very few small artefacts bearing Userkaf's name have been found, witnessing a short reign. These include a gold mounted diorite jar,{{sfn|Hayes|1978|pp=71–72}} a five-[[Deben (unit)|deben]] stone weight{{sfn|Weight of Userkaf, MET|2019}} and a stone cylinder seal from Elephantine, now all in the [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]], as well as an ivory cylinder seal in the [[British Museum]]{{sfn|Hall|1913|p=261 seal 2597}} and yet another seal in the Bulaq Museum.{{sfn|Mariette|1889b|p=17 & pl. 54e}}{{sfn|Kozloff|1982|p=219}}

The only historical source favouring a longer reign is the ''Aegyptiaca'' (Αἰγυπτιακά), a history of Egypt written in the 3rd century BC, during the reign of [[Ptolemy II]] (283–246 BC) by [[Manetho]]. No copies of the Aegyptiaca have survived and it is now known only through later writings by [[Sextus Julius Africanus]] and [[Eusebius]]. According to the Byzantine scholar [[George Syncellus]], Africanus wrote that the ''Aegyptiaca'' mentioned the succession "Usercherês → Sephrês → Nefercherês" at the start of the Fifth Dynasty. Usercherês, Sephrês, and Nefercherês are believed to be the [[Hellenization|Hellenized]] forms for Userkaf, Sahure and Neferirkare, respectively.{{sfn|Waddell|1971|p=51}} In particular, Manetho's reconstruction of the early Fifth Dynasty is in agreement with those given on the [[Abydos king list]] and the [[Saqqara Tablet]], two lists of kings written during the reigns of [[Seti I]] and Ramesses II, respectively.{{sfn|Daressy|1912|p=205}} In contrast with the Turin canon, Africanus's report of the ''Aegyptiaca'' estimates that Userkaf reigned for 28 years,{{sfn|Waddell|1971|p=51}} much longer than the modern consensus.{{sfn|Helck|1981|p=63}}{{sfn|Grimal|1992|p=76}}{{sfn|Malek|2000a|pp=98–99}}{{sfn|Beckerath|1997|p=155}}

===Founder of the Fifth Dynasty===
[[File:PapyrusWestcar photomerge-AltesMuseum-Berlin-5.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|alt=Large papyrus full of cursive inscriptions in black and occasional red ink, riddled with small holes.|The [[Westcar Papyrus|Westcar papyrus]], on display in the [[Ägyptisches Museum]], dates to the [[Seventeenth Dynasty of Egypt|17th Dynasty]] but its story was possibly first written during the [[Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt|12th Dynasty]].{{sfn|Burkard et al.|2003|p=178}}]]
The division of ancient Egyptian kings into dynasties is an invention of Manetho's ''Aegyptiaca'', intended to adhere more closely to the expectations of Manetho's patrons, the [[Ptolemaic dynasty|Greek rulers]] of [[Ptolemaic Kingdom|Ptolemaic Egypt]].{{sfn|Redford|2001|pp=336–337}}
A distinction between the Fourth and Fifth dynasties may nonetheless have been recognised by the ancient Egyptians, as recorded by a much older tradition{{sfn|Malek|2000a|p=98}} found in the tale of the Westcar papyrus. In this story, King [[Khufu]] of the Fourth Dynasty is foretold the demise of his line and the rise of a new dynasty through the accession of three brothers, sons of Ra, to the throne of Egypt. This tale dates to the [[Seventeenth Dynasty of Egypt|Seventeenth]] or possibly the [[Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt|Twelfth Dynasty]].{{sfn|Burkard et al.|2003|p=178}}

Beyond such historical evidence, the division between the Fourth and Fifth Dynasties seems to reflect actual changes taking place at the time, in particular in Egyptian religion, and in the king's role.{{sfn|Goedicke|2000|pp=405–406}} Ra's primacy over the rest of the [[Egyptian pantheon]] and the increased royal devotion given to him made Ra a sort of [[National god|state-god]],{{sfn|Malek|2000a|pp=98–99}}{{sfn|Kozloff|1982|p=220}} a novelty in comparison with the Fourth Dynasty, when more emphasis was put on royal burials.{{sfn|David|David|2001|p=164}}

Userkaf's position before ascending to the throne is unknown. Grimal states that he could have been a high-priest of Ra in [[Heliopolis (ancient Egypt)|Heliopolis]] or [[Sakhebu]], a cult-center of Ra mentioned in the Westcar papyrus.{{sfn|Grimal|1992|p=75}}{{sfn|Petrie|1897|p=70}} The hypothesis of a connection between the origins of the Fifth Dynasty and Sakhebu was first proposed by the Egyptologist [[Flinders Petrie]], who noted that in [[Egyptian hieroglyphs]] the name of Sakhebu resembles that of [[Elephantine]], the city that Manetho gives as the cradle of the Fifth Dynasty. According to Petrie, positing that the Westcar papyrus records a tradition that remembered the origins of the Fifth Dynasty could explain Manetho's records, especially given that there is otherwise no particular connection between Elephantine and Fifth Dynasty pharaohs.{{sfn|Petrie|1897|p=70}}

===Activities in Egypt===
[[File:Seal Userkaf.png|thumb|alt=Drawing of hieroglyphs organised in columns|Cylinder seal of Userkaf reading "Userkaf beloved of the gods, beloved of [[Hathor]]"{{efn|group=note|The seal was in the [[British Museum]] at the end of the 19th century, its current location is unknown.{{sfn|Petrie|1897|p=71}}}}{{sfn|Petrie|1897|p=70}}{{sfn|Petrie|1917|loc=pl. IX}}]]
Beyond the constructions of his mortuary complex and sun temple, little is known of Userkaf.{{sfn|Altenmüller|2001|p=598}} Malek says his short reign may indicate that he was elderly upon becoming pharaoh.{{sfn|Malek|2000a|p=99}} Verner sees Userkaf's reign as significant in that it marks the apex of the sun cult,{{efn|group=note|Egyptologists including Jürgen von Beckerath rather consider Nyuserre's reign as the peak of the solar cult,{{sfn|Beckerath|1982|pp=517–518}} but for Grimal this is exaggerated.{{sfn|Grimal|1992|p=78}}}} the pharaonic title of "Son of Ra" becoming systematic from his reign onwards.{{sfn|Verner|2002|p=265}}

In [[Upper Egypt]], Userkaf either commissioned{{sfn|Altenmüller|2001|p=598}} or enlarged{{sfn|Grimal|1992|p=76}} the temple of [[El-Tod|Montu at Tod]], where he is the earliest attested pharaoh.{{sfn|Arnold|2003|p=86}} Due to structural alterations, in particular during the early [[Middle Kingdom of Egypt|Middle Kingdom]], [[New Kingdom of Egypt|New Kingdom]] and Ptolemaic periods, little of Userkaf's original temple has survived.{{sfn|Wilkinson|2000|p=200}} It was a small mud-brick chapel including a granite pillar,{{sfn|Wilkinson|2000|p=200}} inscribed with the name of the king.{{sfn|Arnold|1996|p=107}}

Further domestic activities may be inferred from the annals of the Old Kingdom, written during Neferirkare's or Nyuserre's reign.{{efn|group=note|The surviving fragments of the annal likely date to the much later [[Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt|25th Dynasty]] ([[Floruit|fl.]] 760–656 BCE), but were certainly copied or compiled from Old Kingdom sources.{{sfn|Bárta|2017|p=2}}}}{{sfn|Allen et al.|1999|p=3}}{{sfn|Grimal|1992|p=46}} They record that Userkaf gave endowments for the gods of [[Heliopolis (ancient Egypt)|Heliopolis]]{{efn|group=note|More precisely to the "[[Ancient Egyptian concept of the soul#bꜣ (personality)|''Bas'']] of Heliopolis".{{sfn|Strudwick|2005|p=69}}}} in the second and sixth years{{efn|group=note|That is, if cattle counts were indeed biennial. The annals state only that the donations happened in the years of the first and third cattle counts.{{sfn|Strudwick|2005|pp=69–70}}}} of his reign as well as to the gods of [[Buto]] in his sixth year, both of which may have been destined for building projects on Userkaf's behalf.{{sfn|Altenmüller|2001|p=598}} In the same vein, the annals record a donation of land to Horus during Userkaf's sixth year on the throne, this time explicitly mentioning "building [Horus'] temple".{{sfn|Strudwick|2005|p=70}}

Other gods honoured by Userkaf include Ra and [[Hathor]], both of whom received land donations recorded in the annals,{{sfn|Strudwick|2005|p=69}}{{sfn|Daressy|1912|p=172}} as well as [[Nekhbet]], [[Wadjet]], the "gods of the divine palace of Upper Egypt" and the "gods of the estate Djebaty" who received bread, beer and land. Finally, a fragmentary piece of text in the annals suggests that [[Min (god)|Min]] might also have benefited from Userkaf's donations.{{sfn|Strudwick|2005|p=70}} Further evidence for religious activities taking place at the time is given by a royal decree{{sfn|Breasted|1906|pp=100–106|loc=§ 216–230}} found in the [[mastaba]] of the administration official Nykaankh [[Fraser Tombs|buried at Tihna al-Jabal]] in Middle Egypt.{{sfn|Grimal|1992|p=75}} By this decree, Userkaf donates and reforms several royal domains for the maintenance of the cult of Hathor{{sfn|Breasted|1906|pp=100–106|loc=§ 216–230}} and installs Nykaankh as priest of this cult.{{sfn|Breasted|1906|loc=§ 219}}

Excavations of the pyramid temple of [[Amenemhat I]] at [[Lisht]] produced a block decorated with a relief bearing the titulary of Userkaf. The block had been reused as a building material. The relief mentions a journey of the king to the temple of [[Bastet]] in a ship called "''He who controls the subjects [...]''".{{sfn|Jánosi|2016|pp=15–16, pls. 4, 149}}

While Userkaf chose [[Saqqara]] to build his pyramid complex, officials at the time, including the [[Vizier (Ancient Egypt)|vizier]] [[Seshathetep|Seshathotep Heti]], continued to build their tombs in the [[Giza necropolis]].{{sfn|Altenmüller|2001|p=598}}

===Trade and military activities===
[[File:Userkaf Kythera.png|thumb|alt=Drawing of a broken stone bowl with a few hieroglyphs|upright|Stone vessel from Kythira bearing the name of Userkaf's sun temple{{sfn|Verner|2001b|p=588}}]]
Userkaf's reign might have witnessed the birth of direct trade between Egypt and its [[Aegean Sea|Aegean]] neighbors as shown by a series of reliefs from his mortuary temple representing ships engaged in what may be a naval expedition.{{sfn|Labrousse|Lauer|2000}}{{sfn|Allen et al.|1999|p=324}} Further evidence for such contacts is a [[Stone vessels in Ancient Egypt|stone vessel]] bearing the name of his sun temple that was uncovered on the Greek island of [[Kythira]].{{sfn|Verner|2001b|p=588}} This vase is the earliest evidence of commercial contacts between Egypt and the Aegean world. Finds in [[Anatolia]], dating to the reigns of [[Menkauhor Kaiu]] and [[Djedkare Isesi]], demonstrate that these contacts continued throughout the Fifth Dynasty.{{sfn|Grimal|1992|p=76}}

South of Egypt,{{sfn|Edwards|2004|pp=2, 90 & 106}} Userkaf launched a military expedition into [[Nubia]],{{sfn|Verner|2001b|p=588}} while the Old Kingdom annals record that he received tribute from a region that is either the [[Eastern Desert]] or [[Canaan]] in the form of a workforce of one chieftain and 70 foreigners{{sfn|Altenmüller|1995|p=48}} (likely women),{{sfn|Strudwick|2005|p=69}}{{sfn|Goedicke|1967|p=63|loc = n. 34}} as well as 303 "pacified rebels" destined to work on Userkaf's pyramid.{{sfn|Baud|Dobrev|1995|p=33|loc=fn. f}} These might have been prisoners from another military expedition to the east of Egypt{{sfn|Altenmüller|2001|p=598}} or rebels exiled from Egypt prior to Userkaf's second year on the throne and now willing to reintegrate into Egyptian society.{{sfn|Altenmüller|1995|pp=47–48}} According to the Egyptologist [[Hartwig Altenmüller]] these people might have been punished following dynastic struggles connected with the end of the Fourth Dynasty.{{sfn|Altenmüller|1995|p=48}} Finally, some reliefs from Userkaf's mortuary temple depict a successful military venture{{sfn|Running troops relief, MET|2019}} against Asiatic Bedouins, whom Userkaf is shown smiting,{{sfn|Kozloff|1982|pp=216–217}} as well as a naval expedition.{{sfn|Ship relief, MET|2019}}{{sfn|Oarsmen relief, MET|2019}}

=== Statuary ===
[[File:Egypt, Old Kingdom, Dynasty 5, reign of Userkaf - Head of King Userkaf - 1979.2 - Cleveland Museum of Art.tif|thumb|231x231px|Egypt, Old Kingdom, Dynasty 5, reign of Userkaf - Head of King Userkaf - 1979.2 - Cleveland Museum of Art]]
[[File:Userkaf fragment Berlin ÄM 19774.jpg|thumb|upright|alt=Piece of statue showing a mouth|Fragment of an alabaster statue of Userkaf from his sun temple, now at the [[Egyptian Museum of Berlin]]{{sfn|Kozloff|1982|pp=211 & 214}}]]
Several fragmentary statues of Userkaf have been uncovered. These include a bust of the goddess [[Neith]] in his likeness{{sfn|Kozloff|1982|p=211}} found in his sun temple at Abusir, now in the [[Egyptian Museum]]. This head of Userkaf is {{convert|45|cm|in|abbr=on}} high and carved from [[greywacke]] stone. It is considered particularly important as it is among the very few sculptures in the round from the [[Old Kingdom]] that show the monarch wearing the [[Deshret]] of [[Lower Egypt]].{{efn|group=note|With catalog number JE 90220.{{sfn|Stadelmann|2007}}}} The head was uncovered in 1957 during the joint excavation expedition of the German and Swiss Institutes of Cairo. Another head which might belong to Userkaf, wearing the [[Hedjet]] of Upper Egypt and made of painted limestone, is in the [[Cleveland Museum of Art]].{{efn|group=note|The head measures {{convert|17.2|cm|in|abbr=on}} in height with a width of {{convert|6.5|cm|in|abbr=on}} and a depth of {{convert|7.2|cm|in|abbr=on}}. Its catalog number is 1979.2.{{sfn|CMA|2018}} This head of Userkaf closely resembles the depictions of Menkaure on his triads.{{sfn|Kozloff|1982|p=211}}}}{{sfn|CMA|2018}}{{sfn|Kozloff|1982|p=211}}

The head of a colossal larger-than-life sphinx statue of Userkaf, now in the Egyptian Museum, was found in the temple courtyard of his mortuary complex at Saqqara by [[Cecil Mallaby Firth]] in 1928.{{sfn|Allen et al.|1999|p=315}} This colossal head of pink Aswan granite shows the king wearing the [[nemes]] headdress with a cobra on his forehead.{{sfn|El-Shahawy|Atiya|2005|p=61}}{{sfn|Clayton|1994|p=61}} It is the largest surviving head dating to the Old Kingdom other than that of the [[Great Sphinx of Giza]]{{sfn|Clayton|1994|p=61}} and the only colossal royal statue from this period.{{sfn|El-Shahawy|Atiya|2005|p=61}} Many more fragments of statues of the king made of diorite, slate and granite but none of limestone have been found at the same site.{{sfn|Allen et al.|1999|p=315}}{{sfn|Kozloff|1982|p=215}} Some bore Userkaf's cartouche and Horus name.{{sfn|Kozloff|1982|p=215}}

Kozloff notes the youthful features of Userkaf on most of his representations and concludes that if these are good indications of his age, then he might have come to the throne as an adolescent and died in his early twenties.{{sfn|Kozloff|1982|p=215}}