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Valentinian I
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== Reign == {{More citations needed section|date=February 2017}} [[File:Colosso-de-barletta.jpg|thumb|The [[Colossus of Barletta]]: Statue of a Roman emperor sometimes identified as Valentinian I. It probably depicts [[Leo I (emperor)|Leo I]] instead.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Discussion: Colossal bronze statue of emperor in cuirass. Probably from Constantinople (now in Barletta). Late fourth to fifth century [LSA-441] |url=http://laststatues.classics.ox.ac.uk/database/discussion.php?id=813#:~:text=The%20colossal%20bronze%20statue%20now,a%20site%20by%20the%20harbour. |access-date= |website=Last Statues of Antiquity |publisher=[[University of Oxford]]}}</ref>]] Valentinian accepted the acclamation on 25 or 26 February 364.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|last=Den Boeft|first=J.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=viazS1MNryoC&pg=PA23|title=Philological and historical commentary on Ammianus Marcellinus: XXVI|publisher=Brill|year=2008|pages=23–24, 81–82|isbn=978-9004163461 }}</ref> As he prepared to make his accession speech, the soldiers threatened to riot, apparently uncertain of his loyalties. Valentinian reassured them that the army was his greatest priority. According to [[Ammianus]] the soldiers were astounded by Valentinian's bold demeanour and his willingness to assume the imperial authority. To further prevent a succession crisis he agreed to pick a co-''Augustus'', perhaps as a reassurance to civilian officials in the Eastern part of the Empire that someone with imperial authority would be present to protect their interests.<ref>{{cite book |last1=James W. Ermatinger |title=The Roman Empire: A Historical Encyclopedia |date=2018 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1440838095 |page=242}}</ref> Valentinian selected his brother Valens as co-''Augustus'' at [[Constantinople]] on 28 March 364.<ref name=":1" /> This was done over the objections of [[Dagalaifus (magister equitum)|Dagalaifus]], the ''[[magister equitum]]''. Ammianus makes it clear that Valens was subordinate to his brother. The remainder of 364 was spent delegating administrative duties and military commands. According to the 5th century [[pagan]] historian [[Zosimus (historian)|Zosimus]], who was inclined to revile the restorer of [[Christianity]], all the ministers and officials appointed by [[Julian (emperor)|Julian]] were summarily dismissed in disgrace. This assertion was qualified by modern authorities.<ref>Gibbon, p. 849 note</ref> It is certain that some reshuffling of commands occurred along with the division of the provinces, but the changes were strictly based on merit. The [[Sophists]] and philosophers who had proliferated in the court of Julian, drawing large salaries for delusive services, were cashiered.<ref>Gibbon, ch. XXIII., pp. 771–773; ch. XXV., p. 849</ref> Valentinian retained the services of Dagalaifus and promoted Aequitius to ''Comes Illyricum''. Valens was given the [[Praetorian prefecture of the East]], governed by [[prefect]] [[Salutius]]. Valentinian gained control of [[Praetorian prefecture of Italy|Italy]], [[Praetorian Prefecture of Gaul|Gaul]], and [[Praetorian Prefecture of Illyricum|Illyricum]]. Valens resided in Constantinople, while Valentinian's court was situated in Milan ([[Mediolanum]]). === Campaigns in Gaul and Germania === [[File:INC-3035-r Солид. Валентиниан I. Ок. 367—375 гг. (реверс).png|alt=|thumb|Reverse of a ''solidus'' of Valentinian marked: {{Smallcaps|restitutor reipublicae}} ("''restitutor of the Republic''")]] In 365 the [[Alemanni]] crossed the Rhine and invaded Gaul. Simultaneously, [[Procopius (usurper)|Procopius]] began his revolt against Valens in the east. According to Ammianus, Valentinian received news of both crises on 1 November while on his way to [[Lutetia]]. He initially sent [[Dagalaifus (magister equitum)|Dagalaifus]] to fight the Alemanni<ref>Ammianus Marcellinus, ''Res Gestae'' XXVI.5.9</ref> while he himself made preparations to march east and help Valens. After receiving counsel from his court and deputations from the leading Gallic cities begging him to stay and protect Gaul, he decided to remain and fight the Alemanni.<ref>Ammianus Marcellinus, ''Res Gestae'' XXVI.5.12</ref><ref>Ammianus Marcellinus, ''Res Gestae'' XXVI.5.13</ref> Valentinian advanced to [[Durocortorum]] and sent two generals, Charietto and Severianus, against the invaders.<ref>Ammianus Marcellinus, ''Res Gestae'' XXVII.1.2</ref> Both generals were promptly defeated and killed;<ref name="ReferenceA">Ammianus Marcellinus, ''Res Gestae'' XXVII.1.4</ref> Dagalaifus took their place in 366, but he was also ineffective.<ref>Ammianus Marcellinus, ''Res Gestae'' XXVII.2.1</ref> Late in the campaigning season Dagalaifus was replaced by [[Jovinus (consul)|Jovinus]], a general from the court of Valentinian. After several victories along the [[Meuse]] river, Jovinus fought and won a pitched battle with the Alemanni near Chalôn.<ref>Ammianus Marcellinus, ''Res Gestae'' XXVII.2.1–7</ref> After his victory he pushed the Alemanni out of Gaul and was awarded the consulate the following year for his efforts.<ref>Ammianus Marcellinus, ''Res Gestae'' XXVII.2.10</ref> In early 367, [[Great Conspiracy|crises in Britain and northern Gaul]] postponed Valentinian's punitive expedition against the Alemanni, who promptly re-crossed the Rhine and plundered [[Moguntiacum]]. Valentinian succeeded in arranging the assassination of [[Vithicabius]], an Alemannic leader, but wanted to decisively end the conflict by bringing the Alemanni under Roman hegemony. Valentinian spent the entire winter of 367 gathering a massive army for a spring offensive. He summoned the ''Comes Italiae'' Sebastianus,{{sfn|Hughes|2013}} with the Italian and Illyrian legions, to join Jovinus and Severus, the ''[[magister peditum]]''. In the spring of 368 Valentinian, his eight-year-old son Gratian and the army crossed the Rhine and [[Main (river)|Main]] rivers into Alemannic territory. Initially they encountered no resistance, burning any dwellings or food stores they found along the way. Finally, Valentinian fought the Alemanni in the [[Battle of Solicinium]]; the Romans were victorious<ref>Ammianus Marcellinus, ''Res Gestae'' XXVII.10.15</ref> but suffered heavy casualties.<ref>Ammianus Marcellinus, ''Res Gestae'' XXVII.10.16</ref> A temporary peace was reached and Valentinian returned to [[Trier]] for the winter.<ref>Ammianus Marcellinus, ''Res Gestae'' XXVII.10.17</ref> During 369, Valentinian ordered new defensive works to be constructed and old structures refurbished along the length of the Rhine's west bank.<ref>Ammianus Marcellinus, ''Res Gestae'' XXVIII.2.1</ref> Boldly, he ordered the construction of a fortress across the Rhine in the mountains near modern [[Heidelberg]].<ref>Ammianus Marcellinus, ''Res Gestae'' XXVIII.2.2</ref> The Alemanni sent envoys to protest, but they were dismissed. The Alemanni attacked the fortress while it was still under construction and destroyed it.<ref>Ammianus Marcellinus, ''Res Gestae'' XXVIII.2.8</ref> [[File:Galleria degli Uffizi, Florence (32212815186).jpg|alt=Portrait head of Valentinian or Valens on a modern bust.|thumb|Life-size portrait head of Valentinian or Valens on a modern bust, [[Uffizi|Uffizi Gallery]].<ref name=":2" /><ref>[http://laststatues.classics.ox.ac.uk/database/discussion.php?id=954 http://laststatues.classics.ox.ac.uk, LSA-582 (J. Lenaghan)]</ref>]] In 370 the [[Saxons]] renewed their attacks on northern Gaul. Nannienus, the ''comes'' in charge of the troops in northern Gaul, urged Severus to come to his aid. After several modest successes, a truce was called and the Saxons handed over young men fit for duty in the Roman military, in exchange for free passage back to their homeland. The Romans ambushed them and destroyed the entire invading force.<ref>Rike, R.L., ''Apex Omnium: Religion in the Res Gestae of Ammianus'' (1987), p.. 91; Jones, Martindale and Morris, ''The Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire'' Vol. I (1971), pp. 615–616</ref> Valentinian meanwhile tried to persuade the [[Burgundians]] – bitter enemies of the Alemanni – to attack [[Macrian]], a powerful Alemannic chieftain. If the Alamanni tried to flee, Valentinian would be waiting for them with his army. Negotiations with the Burgundians broke down when Valentinian, in his usual high-handed manner, refused to meet with the Burgundian envoys and personally assure them of Roman support. Nevertheless, rumors of a Roman alliance with the Burgundians did have the effect of scattering the Alemanni through fear of an imminent attack from their enemies. This event allowed the ''[[magister equitum]]'' [[Count Theodosius|Theodosius]] to attack the Alemanni{{sfn|Hughes|2013}} through Raetia. The many prisoners he took were settled in the [[Po river]] valley in Italy, where they still resided at the time Ammianus wrote his history. Valentinian campaigned unsuccessfully for four more years to defeat Macrian, who in 372 barely escaped capture by Theodosius. Meanwhile, Valentinian continued to recruit heavily from Alemanni friendly to Rome. The Alemannic king [[Fraomar]] was given the rank of [[Military tribune|tribune]] and sent to Britain in 372–373 with an army of reinforcements, and the noblemen Bitheridius and [[Hortarius]] became commanders in Valentinian's army, although Hortarius was soon executed for conspiring with Macrian. The campaigns against hostile Alemanni were hampered by troubles first in Africa, and later on the Danube river. In 374 Valentinian was forced to make peace with Macrian because the Emperor's presence was needed to counter an invasion of Illyricum by the [[Quadi]] and [[Sarmatians]]. === The Great Conspiracy === [[File:INC-3035-a Солид. Валентиниан I. Ок. 367—375 гг. (аверс).png|thumb|A ''[[Solidus (coin)|solidus]]'' of Valentinian]] In 367, events known as the [[Great Conspiracy]] threatened Roman control of Britain. Valentinian received reports that a combined force of [[Picts]], [[Attacotti]] and [[Scoti|Scots]] had attacked the province, killing the ''[[Comes litoris Saxonici]]'' [[Nectaridus]] and ''[[Dux Britanniarum]]'' [[Fullofaudes]]. At the same time, Frankish and Saxon forces were raiding the coastal areas of northern Gaul. Valentinian set out for Britain, sending ''Comes domesticorum'' Severus ahead of him to investigate. Severus was not able to correct the situation and returned to Gaul, meeting Valentinian at [[Samarobriva]]. Valentinian then sent Jovinus to Britain and promoted Severus to ''magister peditum''. It was at this time that Valentinian fell ill and a battle for succession broke out between Severus, a representative of the army, and Rusticus Julianus, ''magister memoriae'' and a representative of the Gallic nobility. The conflict dissipated when Valentinian recovered and appointed his son Gratian as his co-Augustus in the west.{{sfn|Curran|1998|pp=83–84}} Ammianus remarks that such an action was unprecedented. Jovinus quickly returned saying that he needed more men to take care of the situation. In 368 Valentinian appointed Theodosius as the new ''[[Comes Britanniarum]]'' with instructions to return Britain to Roman rule. Meanwhile, Severus and Jovinus were to accompany the emperor on his campaign against the Alamanni. Theodosius arrived in 368 with the [[Batavi (Germanic tribe)|Batavi]], [[Heruli]], Jovii and Victores legions. Landing at [[Rutupiæ]], he proceeded to [[Londinium]], restoring order to southern Britain. Later, he rallied the remaining garrison which was originally stationed in Britain; it was apparent the units had lost their cohesiveness when Fullofaudes and Nectaridus had been defeated. Theodosius sent for [[Civilis (vicarius)|Civilis]] to be installed as the new [[vicarius]] of the [[diocese]] and [[Dulcitius]] as an additional general. In 369, Theodosius set about reconquering the areas north of Londinium, putting down the revolt of [[Valentinus (rebel)|Valentinus]], the brother-in-law of a [[vicarius]], [[Maximinus (praetorian prefect)|Maximinus]]. Subsequently, Theodosius restored the rest of Britain to the empire and rebuilt many fortifications – renaming northern Britain '[[Valentia (Roman Britain)|Valentia]]'. After his return in 369, Valentinian promoted Theodosius to ''magister equitum'' in place of Jovinus. === Revolt in Africa and crises on the Danube === [[File:Missorio di valentiniano I, argento, 364-75 ca., dall'arve, 02.JPG|thumb|right|Heavily-worn silver ''missorium'' (ca. 364–375) believed to depict Valentinian I. Flanked by infantry soldiers, the armoured and haloed emperor holds a [[labarum]] in one hand and an orb surmounted by a figure of Victory in the other]] In 372, the rebellion of [[Firmus (4th century usurper)|Firmus]] broke out in the still-devastated African provinces. This rebellion was driven by the corruption of the ''comes'' Romanus. Romanus took sides in the murderous disputes among the legitimate and illegitimate children of Nubel, a Moorish prince and leading Roman client in Africa. Resentment of Romanus's personal use of public funds and his failure to defend the province from desert nomads caused some of the provincials to revolt. Valentinian sent in Theodosius to restore imperial control. Over the following two years Theodosius uncovered Romanus' crimes, arrested him and his supporters, and defeated both Firmus and the African tribes like the [[Abanni]] and [[Caprarienses]] that supported him.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Desanges |first=J. |title=Encyclopédie berbère |year=1984 |volume=1 |pages=56}}</ref> In 373, hostilities erupted with the [[Quadi]], a group of Germanic-speaking people living on the upper Danube. Like the Alamanni, the Quadi were outraged that Valentinian was building fortifications in their territory. They complained and sent deputations to the ''magister armorum per Illyricum'' Aequitius, who promised to refer the matter to Valentinian. However, the increasingly influential minister Maximinus, now praetorian prefect of Gaul, blamed Aequitius to Valentinian for the trouble, and managed to have him promote his son Marcellianus to finish the project.<ref>Gibbon, p. 894</ref> The protests of Quadic leaders continued to delay the project, and to put an end to their clamor Marcellianus murdered the Quadic king [[Gabinius (king)|Gabinius]] at a banquet ostensibly arranged for peaceful negotiations. This roused the Quadi to war, along with their allies the Sarmatians. During the fall, they crossed the Danube and began ravaging the province of [[Pannonia Valeria]]. The marauders could not penetrate the fortified cities, but they heavily damaged the unprotected countryside. Two legions were sent in but failed to coordinate and were routed by the Sarmatians. Meanwhile, another group of Sarmatians invaded [[Moesia]], but were driven back by the son of Theodosius, ''Dux Moesiae'' and later emperor [[Theodosius I|Theodosius]]. Valentinian did not receive news of these crises until late 374. The following spring he set out from Trier and arrived at [[Carnuntum]], which was deserted. There he was met by Sarmatian envoys who begged forgiveness for their actions. Valentinian replied that he would investigate what had happened and act accordingly. Valentinian ignored Marcellianus’ treacherous actions and decided to punish the Quadi. He was accompanied by Sebastianus and [[Merobaudes (magister peditum)|Merobaudes]], and spent the summer months preparing for the campaign. In the fall he crossed the Danube at [[Aquincum]] into Quadi territory.<ref>Ammianus Marcellinus, ''Res Gestae'' XXX.5.13</ref> After pillaging Quadi lands without opposition, he retired to [[Szombathely|Savaria]] to winter quarters.<ref>Ammianus Marcellinus, ''Res Gestae'' XXX.5.14</ref> ==== Death ==== Without waiting for the spring, Valentinian decided to continue campaigning and moved from Savaria to [[Szony|Brigetio]]. He arrived on 17 November 375 and had a hostile meeting with a Quadi deputation,{{sfn|Curran|1998|p=86}} who received permission for their people to leave in peace in return for supplying fresh recruits to the Roman army. The envoys insisted that the conflict was caused by the building of Roman forts in their lands. They added that individual bands of Quadi, not affiliated with the chiefs who had made the treaties, might still attack the Romans at any time. Enraged, Valentinian began yelling abuse at the envoys and suffered a fatal stroke.{{sfn|Lenski|2003|p=142}} As was the custom, he was [[deified]], becoming known as {{Langx|la|Divus Valentinianus Senior|links=no|lit=the Divine Valentinian the Elder}}.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Tragedy of Empire: From Constantine to the Destruction of Roman Italy |first=Michael |last=Kulikowski |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=2019 |isbn=978-0674660137}}</ref>
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