Editing Varuna (section)

====Rigveda====
In the oldest Hindu scripture, ''[[Rigveda]]'' (<abbr>c.</abbr> 1900–1200 BCE), Varuṇa is among the most prominent deities, appearing in numerous hymns, including 1.25, 2.27–30, 7.86–88, 8.8, and 9.73.<ref name="dhavamony167">{{cite book |author=Mariasusai Dhavamony |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DD0w_IMFA8gC |title=Classical Hinduism |publisher=Gregorian |year=1982 |isbn=978-88-7652-482-0 |pages=167–168 with footnotes}}</ref><ref name="Snodgrass1992p121" /> Despite this frequent mention, he is the central focus of only ten hymns. Varuṇa is portrayed in four principal aspects: as a universal monarch and sovereign of the sky, the upholder of ''[[ṛta]]'' (cosmic order), a deity associated with water (''[[Ap (water)|āpah]]''), and a wielder of ''[[māyā]]'' (cosmic illusion or creative power).<ref name=":Rig">{{Cite book |last=Chaudhuri |first=Dr Usha |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HODWjwEACAAJ |title=Indra And Varuna In Indian Mythology |publisher=Nag Publishers |year=1978 |isbn=978-81-7081-034-6 |pages=33–49 |language=en |chapter=Varuṇa in the Ṛgveda}}</ref>

The ''Rigveda'' features Varuna as the [[Sky deity|god-king of the sky]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bauer |first=Susan Wise |author-link=Susan Wise Bauer |title=The History of the Ancient World: From the Earliest Accounts to the Fall of Rome |publisher=[[W. W. Norton]] |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-393-05974-8 |edition=1st |location=New York |pages=265}}</ref> He is described as a divine king (''[[Maharaja|samraj]]'') with pure strength, abiding in the celestial firmament, where he sustains a radiant mass of light. He is credited with creating the sun’s path and is invoked to dispel suffering, liberate from sin, and shield from evil (''[[nirṛti]]''). His realm includes the movement of constellations and the moon, which obey his divine ordinances. His omniscience is central to his identity: he observes all actions through celestial spies, residing in a thousand-gated palace upon a golden throne—symbols of his pervasive awareness and authority.<ref name=":Rig" />

In ''Rigveda'' 1.25, Varuṇa is praised for his understanding of the paths of birds, the movement of ships and winds, and the secrets of time and space. Hymns characterize him as a sovereign deity, intimately acquainted with both the sacred and the profane.<ref name=":Rig" /> According to ''Rigveda'' 10.123, Varuṇa's messenger is described as the ''Hiraṇyapakṣa'' (golden-winged bird), interpreted by some as a reference to flamingos, based on their colorful plumage and proximity to aquatic habitats. The vulture is likewise mentioned as a messenger of Yama, suggesting symbolic parallels between the two birds.<ref>{{Cite web |year=1897 |title=The Hymns of the Rigveda |url=https://archive.org/details/hymnsrigveda00unkngoog/page/n574/mode/2up |publisher=E.J. Lazarus & co.}}</ref><ref name="Oldenberg1988p104">{{cite book |author=Hermann Oldenberg |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uKeubCiBOPQC |title=The Religion of the Veda |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |year=1988 |isbn=978-81-208-0392-3 |page=104}}</ref><ref name=":Rig2">{{Cite book |last=Chaudhuri |first=Dr Usha |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HODWjwEACAAJ |title=Indra And Varuna In Indian Mythology |publisher=Nag Publishers |year=1978 |isbn=978-81-7081-034-6 |pages=33–49 |language=en |chapter=Varuṇa in the Ṛgveda}}</ref>

Varuṇa's foremost role is as the enforcer of ''[[ṛta]]'', the cosmic and moral order that governs both the natural world and human conduct. Hymns such as ''Rigveda'' VII.11.1 and II.29.8 present him as a vigilant upholder of truth, who punishes transgressors while showing mercy to the penitent. Ethical instructions against killing, deceit, and gambling are linked with his domain. His ordinances are described as unshakable, akin to a mountain.<ref name="dhavamony167" /><ref name="Griffiths1991p132">{{cite book |author=John Gwyn Griffiths |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QDbjjKglE1kC&pg=PA132 |title=The Divine Verdict: A Study of Divine Judgement in the Ancient Religions |publisher=BRILL |year=1991 |isbn=90-04-09231-5 |pages=132–133}}</ref> Concepts closely tied to ''ṛta''—such as ''[[vrata]]'' (sacred vow) and ''[[Dharma|dharman]]'' (duty, law)—are frequently associated with Varuṇa. In this context, ''vrata'' implies both divine commands and ethical imperatives, while ''dharman'' denotes sacrificial law or moral conduct. Varuṇa is accordingly called ''Rivan'' ("guide of moral order") and ''Pūtadakṣa'' ("possessor of pure will").<ref name=":Rig" />

Sin (''ṛṇa'') is conceptualized as a breach of Varuṇa’s order, often attributed to human frailty. Hymns express remorse not only for individual wrongdoing but also for ancestral transgressions, suggesting a nascent idea of inherited guilt. Despite his role as punisher, Varuṇa is often invoked for forgiveness, protection from evil, and relief from fear and dreams. He is described as both a judge and a healer, bearing “a thousand remedies” alongside weapons to punish sin.<ref name=":Rig" />

Varuṇa’s association with water is both cosmological and symbolic. He presides over ''Apah'', the primeval waters representing the matrix of creation. Hymns such as ''Rigveda'' VII.49.4 describe these waters as celestial and purifying. Varuṇa is also called ''Sindhu-pati'' ("lord of the ocean"), sharing this title with [[Mitra (Hindu god)|Mitra]]. These waters are the source of the universe, acting as both creative womb and sacred energy. In later Vedic texts, the waters called Viraj are described as Varuṇa’s consorts, representing ''[[prakṛti]]'' (primordial matter), and Varuṇa himself is termed an ''[[Asura]]'', denoting "possessor of ''māyā''" or vital force, without the later demonic connotation.<ref name=":Rig" />

Varuṇa’s use of ''māyā''—his divine creative power—is a recurring theme in the ''Rigveda''. It refers to his capacity to shape the cosmos and enforce ''ṛta''. Hymns in Mandala VIII describe him as embracing night and measuring the earth with the sun. Through ''māyā'', Varuṇa becomes not only the enforcer of law but also a cosmic architect.<ref name=":Rig" />

===== Combined descriptions: ''Mitra–Varuṇa'' =====
Varuṇa is frequently paired with [[Mitra (Hindu god)|Mitra]] in the compound ''[[Mitra–Varuna|Mitra–Varuṇa]]'', appearing prominently in the ''Rigveda''. Together, they preside over moral and cosmic law, and are associated with ritual, rain, and natural cycles.<ref name=":Rig" /> Both deities are referred to as ''[[Asura|Asuras]]'' (e.g., RV 5.63.3), though also addressed as ''[[Deva (Hinduism)|Devas]]'' (e.g., RV 7.60.12), reflecting fluid theological roles.<ref name="Oldenberg1988p95">{{cite book |author=Hermann Oldenberg |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uKeubCiBOPQC&pg=PA95 |title=The Religion of the Veda |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |year=1988 |isbn=978-81-208-0392-3 |pages=95–98}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=David Leeming |url=https://archive.org/details/oxfordcompaniont0000leem |title=The Oxford Companion to World Mythology |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-19-028888-4 |page=[https://archive.org/details/oxfordcompaniont0000leem/page/200 200] |url-access=registration}}</ref>  According to myths, Varuna, being the king of the Asuras, was adopted or made the change to a Deva after the structuring of the primordial cosmos, imposed by Indra after he defeats [[Vritra]].<ref>F. B. J. Kuiper (1975), [https://www.jstor.org/stable/1061926 The Basic Concept of Vedic Religion], History of Religions, Vol. 15, No. 2 (Nov., 1975), pp. 107–120</ref>

Mitra–Varuṇa are described as youthful monarchs clad in glistening garments, residing in a golden palace with a thousand pillars and gates. They are lords of rivers, rain, and heavenly order, sending dew and bountiful waters, and punishing falsehood with disease.<ref name="VR">{{cite book |last=MacDonell |first=Arthur Anthony |title=A Vedic Reader |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1917 |pages=78–83, 118–119, 134}}</ref> Their sun is described as their "eye", and their cosmic chariot moves across the sky via solar rays. Possessing divine spies and secret knowledge (''māyā́''), they maintain ''ṛta'' and oversee oaths and societal order.<ref name="VR" /> According to myth, the sages [[Vasishtha|Vashistha]] and [[Agastya]] were born from their shared semen, which they deposited into a pitcher after seeing the celestial nymph [[Urvashi]].<ref name="G">{{cite book |last=Goodman |first=Hananya |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XF_a3cfrcLQC&q=agastya+vasistha+urvasi+rgveda&pg=PA218 |title=Between Jerusalem and Benares: Comparative studies in Judaism and Hinduism |date=2012-02-01 |publisher=State University of New York Press |isbn=978-1-4384-0437-0 |lang=en}}</ref>

Scholar [[Doris Meth Srinivasan|Doris Srinivasan]] highlights the ambiguous and dualistic nature of Mitra–Varuṇa, comparing it to the [[Rudra]]-[[Shiva]] pairing.<ref name="Macey2010p2">{{cite book |author=Samuel L. Macey |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=G_z_R89DaPkC&pg=PA2 |title=Patriarchs of Time |publisher=University of Georgia Press |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-8203-3797-5 |pages=2–3, 165}}</ref> Both Varuṇa and Rudra are described as omniscient guardians, capable of both wrath and grace. In ''Rigveda'' 5.70, the Mitra–Varuṇa pair is even called ''Rudra''.<ref name="Srinivasan1997p48">{{cite book |author=Doris Srinivasan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vZheP9dIX9wC&pg=PA48 |title=Many Heads, Arms, and Eyes: Origin, Meaning, and Form of Multiplicity in Indian Art |publisher=BRILL Academic |year=1997 |isbn=90-04-10758-4 |pages=48–49}}</ref> According to Samuel Macey and other scholars, Varuna had been the more ancient Indo-Aryan deity in 2nd millennium BCE, who gave way to Rudra in the Hindu pantheon, and Rudra-Shiva became both "timeless and the god of time".<ref name="Macey2010p2" /><ref>{{cite book |author1=J. P. Mallory |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iNUSDAAAQBAJ |title=The Oxford Introduction to Proto-Indo-European and the Proto-Indo-European World |author2=D. Q. Adams |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-19-928791-8 |pages=430–432}}</ref>