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Vostok programme
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==Missions== {{see also|Vostok (spacecraft)}} [[File:Russia-Moscow-VDNH-Rocket R-7-1.jpg|thumb|150px|A copy of [[R-7 (rocket family)|R-7]] in [[Moscow]]]] [[Vostok 1]], the first human spaceflight in April 1961, was preceded by several preparatory flights. In mid-1960, the Soviets learned that the Americans could launch a [[Sub-orbital spaceflight|sub-orbital]] human spaceflight as early as January 1961. Korolev saw this as an important deadline, and was determined to launch a crewed orbital mission before the Americans launched their human suborbital mission.<ref>Siddiqi, p.250</ref> By April 1960, designers at [[Sergei Korolev]]'s design bureau, then known as [[S.P. Korolev Rocket and Space Corporation Energia|''OKB-1'']], had completed a draft plan for the first Vostok spacecraft, called ''Vostok 1K''. This design would be used for testing purposes; also in their plan was ''Vostok 2K'', a spy satellite that would later become known as [[Zenit (satellite)|Zenit 2]], and ''Vostok 3K'', which would be used for all six crewed Vostok missions. Despite the very large geographical size of the Soviet Union, there were obvious limitations to monitoring orbital spaceflights from ground stations within the country. To remedy this, the Soviets stationed about seven naval vessels, or tracking ships, around the world.<ref name=p263>Siddiqi, p.263</ref> For each ground station or tracking ship, the duration of communications with an orbiting spacecraft was limited to between five and ten minutes.<ref name=p263/> ===Korabl-Sputnik 1=== {{main|Korabl-Sputnik 1}} The first ''Vostok'' spacecraft was a variant not designed to be recovered from orbit; the variant was also called ''Vostok 1KP'' (or ''1P'').<ref name=p251>Siddiqi, p.251</ref> At Korolev's suggestion, the media would call the spacecraft ''Korabl-Sputnik'', ("Satellite-ship"); the name ''Vostok'' was still a secret codename at this point.<ref name=p251/> This first Vostok spacecraft was successfully sent into orbit on May 15, 1960.<ref name=p251/> Owing to a system malfunction, on the spacecraft's 64th orbit the thrusters fired and sent it into an even higher orbit. The orbit eventually decayed, and it [[atmospheric entry|re-entered the atmosphere]] several years later.<ref>According to Hall and Shayler, p.122, the Descent module re-entered on September 5, 1962, and the Equipment module re-entered on October 15, 1965.</ref><ref name=p252>Siddiqi, p.252</ref> ===Vostok 1K=== {| class="wikitable" style="float:right; margin: 1em; font-size: 95%" ! Mission ! Spacecraft ! Launch ! Result |- | [[Korabl-Sputnik 1]] || ''1P'' ||May 15, 1960 || {{Failure}} |- | Unnamed || ''1K-1'' || July 28, 1960 || {{Failure}} |- | [[Korabl-Sputnik 2]] || ''1K-2'' ||August 19, 1960 || {{Success}} |- | [[Korabl-Sputnik 3]] || ''1K-3'' ||December 1, 1960 || {{Partial failure}} |- | Unnamed || ''1K-4'' || December 22, 1960 || {{Failure}} |- | [[Korabl-Sputnik 4]] || ''3KA-1'' || March 9, 1961 || {{Success}} |- | [[Korabl-Sputnik 5]] || ''3KA-2'' || March 25, 1961 || {{Success}} |} The next six launches were all of the ''Vostok 1K'' design, equipped with life-support facilities, and planned to be recovered after orbit. The first spacecraft launched on July 28, 1960 carried two [[Soviet space dogs|space dogs]] named Chayka and Lisichka. An explosion destroyed the spacecraft shortly after launch, killing both dogs, and the mission was not given a name.<ref name=p252/> The next mission, designated [[Korabl-Sputnik 2]], was launched on August 19, 1960, carrying two more dogs, [[Soviet space dogs#Belka and Strelka|Belka and Strelka]], as well as a variety of other biological specimens such as mice, insects, and strips of human skin.<ref name=p253>Siddiqi, p.253</ref> This mission was successful, and Belka and Strelka became the first living beings recovered from orbit.<ref name=p253/> The spacecraft was only the second object ever to have been recovered from orbit, the first being the return capsule of the American [[Corona (satellite)|Discoverer 13]] the previous week. During the mission there was some concern for Belka and Strelka's health, after images of Belka vomiting had been obtained from the onboard cameras.<ref name=p253/> The spacecraft and dogs were recovered following the 26-hour spaceflight, and extensive physiological tests revealed that the dogs were in good health.<ref name=p254>Siddiqi, p.254</ref> This represented a significant success for the Vostok programme.<ref name=p254/> The success of Korabl-Sputnik 2 gave the designers confidence to put forward a plan leading to a human spaceflight. A document regarding a plan for the Vostok programme, dated September 10, 1960, and declassified in 1991, was sent to the [[Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union|Central Committee of the Communist Party]], and approved by [[List of Premiers of the Soviet Union|Premier]] [[Nikita Khrushchev]].<ref name=p254/> This document had been signed by the top leaders in the Soviet defence industry at the time, the most senior being [[List of Deputies of the Soviet Union|Deputy Chairman]] [[Dmitriy Ustinov]]; this indicated the elevated importance of the document.<ref name=p254/> The plan called for one or two more ''Vostok 1K'' flights, followed by two uncrewed ''Vostok 3K'' flights, followed by a crewed flight in December 1960.<ref name=p255>Siddiqi, p.255</ref> A major setback occurred on October 24, when a rocket explosion killed over 100 people, including [[Chief Marshal]] of Artillery [[Mitrofan Ivanovich Nedelin|Mitrofan Nedelin]], in what is now called the [[Nedelin catastrophe]]. This was one of the worst [[List of spaceflight-related accidents and incidents|disasters in the history of spaceflight]]. It involved a rocket that was not designed by Korolev, and was not necessary for the Vostok programme; the rocket was by rival designer [[Mikhail Yangel]], intended to be a new generation of [[intercontinental ballistic missile]]s.<ref name=Nedelin>Siddiqi, p.256-258</ref> It would be two weeks before work on the Vostok programme continued, and it was realised that the original target of a December crewed launch was unrealistic.<ref name=Nedelin/> On December 1, 1960, the next ''Vostok 1K'' spacecraft, called [[Korabl-Sputnik 3]] by the press, was launched. It carried the two dogs [[Soviet space dogs#Pchyolka and Mushka|Pchyolka and Mushka]]. After about 24 hours, the engines were intended to fire to begin re-entry, but they fired for less time than had been expected. This meant that the spacecraft would enter the atmosphere, but not over Soviet territory. For this reason the self-destruct system was activated, and the spacecraft and the two dogs were destroyed.<ref name=p259>Siddiqi, p.259</ref> At the time, the press reported that an incorrect altitude caused the cabin to be destroyed upon re-entry.<ref name=p259/> The next ''Vostok 1K'' spacecraft was launched on December 22, 1960, but it was unnamed because it failed to reach orbit. It carried two dogs, named [[Soviet space dogs#Damka and Krasavka|Kometa and Shutka]]. The third stage of the launch system malfunctioned, and the emergency escape system was activated. The spacecraft landed 3,500 kilometres downrange of the launch site. The resulting rescue operation took several days, in -40 [[Celsius|Β°C]] conditions. After a few days, the dogs were both recovered alive, and the spacecraft was returned to Moscow a few weeks later.<ref>See Siddiqi p.259-260 for a detailed account of this incident.</ref> Despite Korolev's desire to announce this failure to the press, the State Commission vetoed the idea. ===Vostok 3KA=== {{see also|Korabl-Sputnik 4|Korabl-Sputnik 5}} The two uncrewed missions immediately preceding the first human flight used the same spacecraft design as in the crewed missions, a design called ''Vostok 3KA'' (or ''3A''). The only differences were that they would carry a single dog into orbit, a life-size [[mannequin]] would be strapped into the main ejection seat, and (unlike the crewed missions) they had a self-destruct system.<ref name=p264>Siddiqi, p. 264</ref> The recent failures of Vostok 1K were not encouraging, but it was decided to proceed with launches of an automated variant of ''Vostok 3KA'', the spacecraft design that would conduct a human spaceflight. The approval of a crewed mission was contingent upon the success of the two automated ''Vostok 3KA'' missions.<ref>Siddiqi, p. 260</ref> Unlike the previous ''Vostok 1K'' flights, the two uncrewed ''Vostok 3KA'' flights were planned to last only a single orbit, to imitate the plan for the first human flight. The first of these uncrewed flights, [[Korabl-Sputnik 4]], was launched on March 9, 1961. It carried the dog [[Soviet space dogs#Chernushka|Chernushka]] into orbit, as well as a mannequin called [[Ivan Ivanovich (Vostok programme)|Ivan Ivanovich]], who wore a functioning [[SK-1 spacesuit]].<ref name=p265>Siddiqi, p. 265</ref> The dog was contained in a small pressurized sphere, which also contained 80 mice, several [[guinea pig]]s, and other biological specimens.<ref name=p265/> Additional mice, guinea pigs, and other specimens were placed within the mannequin.<ref name=p265/> After one orbit, the descent module successfully re-entered the atmosphere, the mannequin was safely ejected, and the dog and other specimens landed separately in the descent module by parachute.<ref name=p266>Siddiqi, p. 266</ref> The spaceflight lasted 106 minutes, and the dog was recovered alive after landing. The mission was a complete success.<ref name=p266/> On March 23, before the next mission, an accident occurred during training which led to the death of cosmonaut candidate [[Valentin Bondarenko]]. He was burned in a fire in an oxygen-rich isolation chamber, and died in a hospital eight hours after the incident.<ref name=p266/> Bondarenko's death was the first known cosmonaut or astronaut fatality. It is not clear whether other cosmonauts were told of his death immediately;<ref name=p266/> the media did not learn of Bondarenko's death β or even of his existence β until many years later, in 1986.<ref>Burgess and Hall, p. 130</ref> Unsubstantiated reports of other cosmonaut deaths created the myth of the [[lost cosmonauts|lost cosmonaut]]. {{quote box|align=right|width=33%|quote=''Vostok 3KA-2'' was the key in the door for Gagarin's flight|author=[[James Oberg]], spaceflight historian<ref>Quoted in Burgess and Hall, p. 138</ref>}} The next uncrewed flight, [[Korabl-Sputnik 5]], was launched on March 25, two days after Bondarenko's death. Like the previous ''Vostok 3KA'' flight, it lasted for only a single orbit, carried a mannequin and many animals, which included frogs, plants, mice, rats, and a dog, [[Soviet space dogs#Zvyozdochka|Zvezdochka]] ("Starlet",<ref name=p267>Siddiqi, p267</ref> or "Little star"<ref name=KS5>{{cite web|url=https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=1961-009A|title=Sputnik 10 - NSSDC ID: 1961-009A|publisher=NASA}}</ref>). This mission was also a complete success, which was the final step required to get approval for a crewed mission. The re-entry module of the Korabl-Sputnik 5 spacecraft, also called ''Vostok 3KA-2'', was auctioned at [[Sotheby's]] on April 12, 2011, the 50th anniversary of the first human spaceflight, [[Vostok 1]]. Evgeny Yurchenko, a Russian investment banker, paid $2,882,500 for the capsule.<ref name=sothebys>{{cite web|url=http://www.space.com/11377-soviet-space-capsule-sothebys-auction.html|title=Vintage Soviet Space Capsule Sold for Record $2.9 Million|date=13 April 2013|author=Tariq Malik|website=[[Space.com]]}}</ref> ===Crewed flights=== {| class="wikitable" style="font-size: 95%" ! Mission ! Launch ! Duration ! Landing ! Pilot ! Notes |- |[[Vostok 1]] || 12 April 1961 || 1 h 48 m || 12 April 1961 || [[Yuri Gagarin]] || First man in space. |- |[[Vostok 2]] || 6 August 1961 || 1 d 1 h 18 m || 7 August 1961 || [[Gherman Titov]] || First crewed mission lasting a full day. |- |[[Vostok 3]] || 11 August 1962 || 3 d 22 h 22 m || 15 August 1962 || [[Andriyan Nikolayev]] || First simultaneous flight of two crewed spacecraft. |- |[[Vostok 4]] || 12 August 1962 || 2 d 22 h 56 m || 15 August 1962 || [[Pavel Popovich]] || First simultaneous flight of two crewed spacecraft. |- |[[Vostok 5]] || 14 June 1963 || 4 d 23 h 7 m || 19 June 1963 || [[Valery Bykovsky]] || Longest solo orbital flight. |- |[[Vostok 6]] || 16 June 1963 || 2 d 22 h 50 m || 19 June 1963 || [[Valentina Tereshkova]] || First woman in space. |} ===Cancelled missions=== One different (1963) and seven original (going through to April 1966) Vostok flights were originally planned: *'''Vostok 6A''' - pair to [[Vostok 5]] group flight with female cosmonaut instead fulfilled [[Vostok 6]] flight [https://web.archive.org/web/20020629001403/http://www.astronautix.com/flights/vostok6a.htm] *'''Vostok 7''' - 8-days high-altitude flight for radiological-biological studies with natural re-entry from orbit [https://web.archive.org/web/20020629001212/http://www.astronautix.com/flights/vostok7.htm] *'''Vostok 8''' - pair to Vostok 9 10-days group high-altitude flight for extended scientific studies with natural re-entry from orbit [https://web.archive.org/web/20020419040859/http://www.astronautix.com/flights/vostok8.htm] *'''Vostok 9''' - pair to Vostok 8 10-days group high-altitude flight for extended scientific studies with natural re-entry from orbit [https://web.archive.org/web/20020330111452/http://www.astronautix.com/flights/vostok9.htm] *'''Vostok 10''' - 10-days high-altitude flight for extended scientific studies with natural re-entry from orbit [https://web.archive.org/web/20020521221743/http://www.astronautix.com/flights/vostok10.htm] *'''Vostok 11''' - supplemental flight for extra-vehicular activity tests [https://web.archive.org/web/20020827225021/http://astronautix.com/flights/vostok11.htm] *'''Vostok 12''' - supplemental flight for extra-vehicular activity tests [https://web.archive.org/web/20020330111358/http://www.astronautix.com/flights/vostok12.htm] *'''Vostok 13''' - 10-days high-altitude flight for extended scientific studies with natural re-entry from orbit [https://web.archive.org/web/20020628233751/http://www.astronautix.com/flights/vostok13.htm] All these original missions were cancelled in early 1964 and the components recycled into the [[Voskhod programme]], which was intended to achieve more Soviet firsts in space. {{Portal|Spaceflight|Soviet Union}}
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