Editing West Timor (section)

=== Netherlands ===
[[File:Dampier-nh2-04.jpg|thumb|326x326px|The Kingdom of Copang on a map by [[William Dampier]], 1699]]
In 1640, the Dutch built their first fortress on Timor near [[Kupang]] and the political division of the island began. [[Kupang Regency|Kupang Bay]] was considered the best [[natural harbour]] on the entire island. From 1642, a simple fort again protected the Portuguese post. Two Dutch attacks on it failed in 1644. For better defence, the Dominicans under ''Antonio de São Jacointo'' built a new fortress in 1647, but in 1653 the Dutch destroyed the Portuguese post and finally conquered it on 27 January 1656 with a strong force under General ''Arnold de Vlamigh van Outshoorn''. However, the Dutch had to withdraw from the fortress immediately due to heavy losses after following the Topasse outside Kupang. For the time being, however, the Dutch sphere of influence remained limited to this region of Timor, with the exception of [[Maubara]], which fell to the Dutch in 1667. Until the final conquest of the Portuguese fortress in Kupang Bay in 1688, the [[Dutch East India Company]] (VOC) concluded treaties with the five small rulers in this area, the "five loyal allies" ([[Sonbai Kecil]], Helong, [[Amabi]] in 1665, [[Amfo'an]] in 1683 and [[Taebenu]] in 1688).<ref>{{Cite web |title=retro{{!}}bib - Seite aus Meyers Konversationslexikon: Timomachos - Timur |url=https://www.retrobibliothek.de/retrobib/seite.html?id=115739 |access-date=2023-11-01 |website=www.retrobibliothek.de}}</ref> In the middle of the 18th century, Timor was divided into two halves from a Portuguese perspective. The smaller western part consisted of the province of {{ill|Servião|de|Servião}} with 16 local kingdoms and was controlled by the Topasses.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Hägerdal |first=Hans |title=Servião and Belu: Colonial conceptions and the geographical partition of Timor |url=http://www.isp.msu.edu/studiesonasia/s3_v3_n1/3_3_1Hagerdal.pdf |journal=University of Vaxjo|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060907191041/http://www.isp.msu.edu/studiesonasia/s3_v3_n1/3_3_1Hagerdal.pdf |archive-date=7 September 2006 }}</ref> The eastern half was the [[Belu (province)|province of Belu]] (Bellum) and consisted of 46 kingdoms.<ref>{{cite book |author=H.G. Schulte Nordholt |title=The Political System of the Atoni of Timor |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |year=2013 |isbn=978-94-015-1013-4 |editor=M.J.L. Yperen}}</ref><ref name=":1" /> Three times the Topasses also tried to expel the Dutch from Timor. However, when an attack by the Portuguese and Topasses on Kupang ended in disaster in 1749, despite superior numbers, the rule of both in West Timor collapsed. At the [[Battle of Penfui]] (today Kupang's [[El Tari International Airport]] is located there), [[Gaspar da Costa|Capitão-Mor Gaspar da Costa]] and many other Topasse leaders were killed. A total of 40,000 warriors of the Topasses and their allies are said to have perished. As a result of the defeat, the rule of the Portuguese and Topasses in West Timor collapsed.{{sfn|Hägerdal|2012|pp=367–369}}{{sfn|Nordholt|2014|p=181}}

In April 1751, [[Liurais of Servião]] rose up; according to one source, Gaspar only met his death here.{{what?|date=January 2024}}<ref>{{Cite journal |date=10 December 1750 |title=Rebelião na província de Servião : Letter from the Bishop of Malacca |url=http://siarq.iict.pt/pagman/iman001.asp?RCODOBJ=102083000048&CODDES=234&txtDes=prov%C3%83%C6%92%C3%86%E2%80%99%C3%83%E2%80%A0%C3%A2%E2%82%AC%E2%84%A2%C3%83%C6%92%C3%A2%E2%82%AC%C5%A1%C3%83%E2%80%9A%C3%82%C2%ADncia&offset=0 |journal=Instituto de Investigação Científica Tropical}}</ref> In 1752, the Dutch attacked the [[Amarasi|Amarasi Kingdom]] and the Topasse Kingdom of [[Noimuti]]. This attack was led by the German [[Hans Albrecht von Plüskow]], who was the Dutch commander of Kupang. He was to be killed by a Topasse assassination plot in Lifau in 1761. The Dutch also used this campaign to hunt slaves to serve the needs of the plantations in the Moluccas.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Fiedler |first=H. |date=1931 |title=Hans Albrecht von Plüskow as head of Timor: History of a small cantor of the VOC 1758-1761 |journal=Deutsche Wacht}}</ref> In 1752, the [[Roman Catholic Diocese of Melaka–Johor|Bishop of Malacca]] branded the Dutch trade in slaves, which were also sold to Chinese and Arabs, as a crime that would lead to excommunication for Catholics.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Jongeneel |first=Jan A.B. |date=2010 |title=Jan Sihar Aritonang and Karel Steenbrink (eds.), A History of Christianity in Indonesia, Leiden et al.: Brill 2008, 1004 p., ISBN 978-90-04-17026-1, price € 179.00. |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/016627410x12560074289360 |journal=Exchange |volume=39 |issue=1 |pages=104–106 |doi=10.1163/016627410x12560074289360 |issn=0166-2740|url-access=subscription }}</ref> 
[[File:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Aquarel van het feestmaal georganiseerd door Paravicini TMnr 3728-541a.jpg|thumb|Festivity at which Paravicini is surrounded by local rulers, 1756]]
In 1755, the Dutch East India Company (VOC) sent [[John Andrew Paravicini]] to negotiate treaties with rulers in several of the [[Lesser Sunda Islands]]. In 1756, 48 Lesser Kings of [[Solor]], [[Rote Island|Roti]], [[Savu|Sawu]], [[Sumba]] and much of West Timor made alliances with the VOC. This was the beginning of Dutch rule in what is now Indonesian West Timor. Among them was a certain Jacinto Correa (Hiacijinto Corea), King of [[Wewiku-Wehale]] and Grand Prince of Belu, who also signed the dubious [[Treaty of Paravicini]] on behalf of 27 territories dependent on him in central Timor.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last=Fox |first=James J. |date=December 9, 1996 |title=The Paradox of Powerlessness: Timor in Historical Perspective |url=http://dspace.anu.edu.au/bitstream/1885/41370/1/TimorOslo_Paper.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=Department of Anthropology, Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies, the Australian National University |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070706232737/http://dspace.anu.edu.au/bitstream/1885/41370/1/TimorOslo_Paper.pdf |archive-date=July 6, 2007}}</ref> Fortunately for the Portuguese, Wehale was no longer powerful enough to pull all the local rulers over to the side of the Dutch. Thus, the eastern former vassals of Wehale remained under the flag of Portugal, while Wehale itself fell under Dutch rule.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Yoder |first=Laura Suzanne Meitzner |date=2005 |title=Custom, Codification, Collaboration: Integrating the Legacies of Land and Forest Authorities in Oecusse Enclave, East Timor. |url=http://oecusse.com/adat/docs/Custom_Codification.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=Yale University |pages=82–83 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070307033640/http://oecusse.com/adat/docs/Custom_Codification.pdf |archive-date=March 7, 2007}}</ref>
[[File:Ostindienfahrer.jpg|left|thumb|190x190px|Replica of a Dutch East Indiaman from 1748]]
On 11 August 1769, the Portuguese governor [[António José Teles de Meneses]] was forced to leave Lifau by the Topasses. The new capital of the Portuguese on Timor became Dili in the east of the island.<ref>D. Carlos Filipe Ximenes Belo (2013), ''História da Igreja em Timor-Leste: 450 Anos de Evangelização, 1562-1940'', 1.º volume, Porto, Fundação Eng. António de Almeida, p. 223.</ref> The Topaz Francisco da Hornay offered Lifau to the Dutch, but after careful consideration they refused.<ref name=":2" />

However, Dutch power remained limited in the west and was primarily in the hands of their Timorese allies. In 1681, the Dutch conquered the western island of Roti, from where slaves were subsequently brought to Timor.<ref name="PAROTW433">{{cite book |author=Бернова А. А. & Членов М. А. |title=Народы и религии мира. Энциклопедия |publisher=М.: Большая Российская энциклопедия |year=1999 |editor=Тишков В.А. |page=433}}</ref> The Dutch also recruited soldiers for their army there and built schools after the local ruler converted to Christianity in 1729. The [[Rotenese people|Rotinese people]] became a well-educated elite. To use them as a counterweight to the Timorese, the Dutch encouraged their immigration to West Timor, so that they are still present here today.<ref name=":0" />

But the Dutch also had to contend with rebellions in the 1750s and 1780s. The worst was the renewed loss of [[Sonbai Besar|Greater Sonba'i]]. The ruler, [[Kau Sonbai]], openly broke with the Dutch from 1783, left Kupang and re-established Sonba'i as an independent inland kingdom, constantly pitting Dutch and Portuguese against each other. [[Sonbai Kecil|Little Sonbai]] remained under Dutch control.<ref>H. Hägerdal (2007), 'Rebellions or Factionalism? Timorese Forms of Resistance in an Early Colonial Context', ''Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde'' 163-1, p. 18.</ref> The reason for the rebellions was probably the deficiencies in the administration of the VOC, which now became openly apparent with the expansion of the domain. After 1733, the VOC had an acute shortage of personnel due to [[malaria]] epidemics in [[Batavia, Dutch East Indies|Batavia]]. The situation was even worse in Kupang, where mortality among Europeans was particularly high due to malaria. Paravicini, of all people, who had praised the VOC so much in his treaty, described their personnel as bad, dishonest, greedy, cruel and disobedience would run rampant with him. They forced local rulers to buy goods at outrageous prices and Opperhoofd (settlers) preyed on the impoverished rajas. The Timorese kingdoms were forced to send troops and 200 men annually to pan for gold in the mountains. Neither the military expeditions nor the gold prospecting brought the desired success. Instead, discontent among the Timorese grew. This was also because accidents during the search for gold could also be dangerous for the regents. A Dutchman reported in 1777, when five gold mines had collapsed, that relatives of the victims could take revenge on the rulers who had sent them to search for gold. There were also problems with corruption and also with the [[Mardijker people|Mardijkers]], the Dutch equivalent of the Topasse, but most of whom had not adopted the Christian faith. They were seen as an arrogant group that sought to expand their influence in the region.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hägerdal |first=Hans |date=2008-01-01 |title=Rebellions or factionalism? Timorese forms of resistance in an early colonial context, 1650-1769 |url=https://brill.com/view/journals/bki/163/1/article-p1_1.xml |journal=Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde |language=en |volume=163 |issue=1 |pages=1–33 |doi=10.1163/22134379-90003678 |s2cid=161915149 |issn=0006-2294|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Royal timor - Sonbai |url=http://www.royaltimor.com/Sonbai_Article.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110715205124/http://www.royaltimor.com/Sonbai_Article.html |archive-date=15 July 2011}}</ref>
[[File:UvA-BC 300.144 - Siboga - Noimini-bocht op het eiland Timor (Noimina-bocht).jpg|thumb|[[Noimini Bay]] on the south coast of West Timor. Photo of the [[Siboga expedition]] by [[Max Carl Wilhelm Weber|Max Wilhelm Carl Weber]] (1899/1900).]]
[[William Bligh]] reached Kupang with his faithful in 1789 after being marooned at sea during the [[mutiny on the Bounty]].{{sfn|Hough|1972|p=189}}

In 1790, a rebellion in Sonba'i and Maubara was put down by the Dutch, but the colony continued to be troubled into the 19th century and the Dutch failed to bring the interior of the island under their control. In 1799, the Dutch East India Company went bankrupt and the Dutch government took over rule of West Timor, though without showing much interest in the economically uninteresting and distant Kupang. Trade was primarily conducted by the Chinese.

In 1797, the British attempted to occupy Kupang, fearing that France might establish itself here after the [[Batavian Republic|occupation of the Netherlands]]. However, the British were driven out by the Dutch commander with the help of local people and slaves. The subsequent collapse of the company meant that in 1799, the area returned to official Dutch rule. During the [[Napoleonic Wars]], the British succeeded in occupying Kupang in 1811. In 1812, British control was extended to all of Dutch West Timor. Only after the return of the [[House of Orange-Nassau]] to the Dutch throne did the Dutch officially regain their Timorese possessions on 7 October 1816.<ref>Monika Schlicher: ''Portugal in Osttimor. Eine kritische Untersuchung zur portugiesischen Kolonialgeschichte in Osttimor 1850 bis 1912''. Abera, Hamburg 1996, {{ISBN|3-931567-08-7}}, (''Abera Network Asia-Pacific''&nbsp;4), (Zugleich: Heidelberg, Univ., Diss., 1994).</ref><ref name=":3" /> As early as 1815, Dutch troops had unsuccessfully tried to bring the rebellious Raja of [[Amanuban]] (Amanubang) back under their control. He was a Christian ruler in West Timor who had been educated in Kupang and had also visited the Dutch colonial metropolis of Batavia. In 1816, a second military expedition failed disastrously due to Timorese guerrilla tactics. Sixty Dutch soldiers died, while the rebels suffered only six casualties. Until 1915, the Dutch still had to send military expeditions into the interior almost every year to pacify the native population, mostly against the Amanuban Kingdom.
[[File:Westtimor 1911.png|thumb|Dutch (orange) and Portuguese (green) Timor as seen by the Netherlands (1911)]]
In 1851, the Portuguese governor [[José Joaquim Lopes de Lima]] reached an agreement with the Dutch on the colonial boundaries in Timor, but without authorisation from Lisbon. In it, the western part, except for the exclave of [[Oecusse|Oe-Cusse Ambeno]], was ceded to the Dutch.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Teles |first=Miguel Galvão |title=East Timor in Reprint of the II Supplement to the Legal Dictionary of Public Administration |url=https://www.mlgts.pt/xms/files/v1/Publicacoes/Artigos/446.pdf }}</ref> Needless to say, the governor fell from grace and was deposed when Lisbon learned of the treaty. But the agreements could not be undone, even though the treaty on boundaries was renegotiated in 1854 and not ratified until 1859 as the [[Treaty of Lisbon (1859)|Treaty of Lisbon]]. The various small kingdoms of Timor were divided under Dutch and Portuguese authority. The treaty had some weaknesses, however. One enclave without access to the sea remained in the territory of the other side. In addition, the imprecise borders of the Timorese kingdoms and their traditional claims were the basis for the colonial demarcation.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Portugal |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4gMMAAAAYAAJ&q=tratado+de+lisboa+de+1859 |title=Tratado de demarcação e troca de algumas possessões portuguezas e neerlandezas no Archipelago de Solor e Timor entre sua magestade el-rei de Portugal e sua magestade el-rei dos Paizes Baixos assignado em Lisboa pelos respectivos plenipotenciarios aos 20 de abril de 1859 |date=1861 |publisher=Imprensa nacional |language=pt}}</ref>

From 1872 onwards, the Dutch left "internal affairs" to the native rulers, who were thus able to continue unhindered with slave trading and piracy and to carry out raids on other places. In 1885, however, one of the larger kingdoms of West Timor, Sonba'i, fell into anarchy after the death of the Raja. When the Dutch governor and his garrison were not in Kupang, the colonial capital was even occupied by the rebels. The Dutch then abandoned their policy of non-interference in the internal affairs of the rulers they controlled. Then [[Governor-general of the Dutch East Indies|Governor-General]], [[Jan Jacob Rochussen]], sent troops and placed the interior of the island under military administration. The rulers were again forced to sign a treaty (''Korte Verklaring'') in which they recognised the sovereignty of the Netherlands and were forbidden contact with foreign powers.

Only after three more negotiations (1893, 1904 and 1913) between the two colonial powers was the problem of the [[Indonesia–Timor-Leste border|final borders]] resolved. On 17 August 1916, the treaty was signed in The Hague that defined the border between East and West Timor that still exists today.<ref name="Deeley">{{Citation |last=Deeley |first=Neil |title=The International Boundaries of East Timor |date=2001 |url=https://www.dur.ac.uk/ibru/publications/view/?id=220 |access-date=22 September 2020 |publisher=IBRU, University of Durham |language=en}}</ref> The wrangling over this border between Portugal and the Netherlands and the views of the indigenous population as to whether they belonged to the West or the East has had consequences that extend to the present day. Various ethnic groups that were part of the Wehale Kingdom or its close allies were divided by the border. Today, Tetum, Bunak and Kemak live both in Indonesian West Timor and in independent East Timor. Traditionally, there are still thoughts among these peoples about a [[Great Timor|united Timor]]. There were conflicts between the different Timorese kingdoms, which already had their roots in pre-colonial times. Various reasons could then lead to the outbreak of armed conflicts between the Timorese. For example, the ''Mold'' and the ''Miomafo'' in south-central West Timor fought over gold mines between 1760 and 1782. From 1864 to 1870, ''Sonba'i'' and the ''Sorbian of Amfo'an'' fought over the rights to use some [[Areca catechu|betel palms]] in the Kupang kingdom.<ref name=":3" />

The Dutch, like the Portuguese in the eastern part of the island, had problems financing their colony. The captain of the Portuguese corvette ''Sa de Bandeira'' reported from his visit in 1869 that the Dutch could not return his [[21-gun salute]] because they lacked guns and soldiers. The Portuguese captain saw this as an example of the Dutch way of "economic administration".<ref name=":3" /> In 1875, the German expedition ship [[SMS Gazelle (1859)|SMS Gazelle]] visited Kupang on its circumnavigation of the world. Extensive studies of the surrounding area were carried out.<ref>{{Cite book |last=N/A |url=https://edoc.hu-berlin.de/handle/18452/686 |title=Die Forschungsreise S.M.S. |date=1889-01-01 |publisher=Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin |isbn=978-1-110-06990-3}}</ref>