Editing Western corn rootworm (section)

== History of invasions ==

The Western corn rootworm rapidly expanded its range in North America during the second part of the 20th century. It is now present from the southwestern region of the US [[Corn Belt]] to the east coast. It was introduced at the end of the 20th century into [[Europe]], where it was first observed near [[Belgrade]], [[Serbia]] in 1992.<ref name="Gray_miller">{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1146/annurev.ento.54.110807.090434| pmid = 19067634| title = Adaptation and Invasiveness of Western Corn Rootworm: Intensifying Research on a Worsening Pest| journal = Annual Review of Entomology| volume = 54| pages = 303–21| year = 2009| last1 = Gray | first1 = M. E. | last2 = Sappington | first2 = T. W. | last3 = Miller | first3 = N. J. | last4 = Moeser | first4 = J. | last5 = Bohn | first5 = M. O. | s2cid = 24392625| url = https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1250&context=entomologyfacpub }}</ref> The Serbian outbreak spread north and south to include [[Greece]] to [[Poland]] and east from [[Italy]] to [[Ukraine]].<ref name="Eppo_WCR">{{cite web|url=http://www.eppo.int/QUARANTINE/special_topics/Diabrotica_virgifera/diabrotica_virgifera.htm#map-dia |title=European and Mediterranean Plant Protection Organization (EPPO) |publisher=Eppo.int |access-date=2014-04-04}}</ref> In addition to this large continuous area in Central and southeastern [[Europe]], discontinuous outbreaks have been detected in Europe. The first was discovered near [[Venice]], Italy, in 1998, in northwestern Italy ([[Piedmont]]) and [[Switzerland]] ([[canton Ticino]]) in 2000, northeastern [[Italy]] in 2002 (near [[Pordenone]]) and 2003 (near [[Udine]]), northern [[Italy]] ([[Trentino]]), Eastern France ([[Alsace]]), Switzerland, [[Belgium]], the [[United Kingdom]] and the [[Netherlands]] in 2003 and the [[Paris]]ian region, [[France]] in 2002, 2004 and 2005. Outbreaks detected in north [[Switzerland]], [[Belgium]], the [[Netherlands]] and the Parisian region did not persist.<ref name="Eppo_WCR"/>
The distribution of the European corn rootworm resulted from several introductions from [[North America]].<ref>{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1126/science.1115871| pmid = 16284172| title = Multiple Transatlantic Introductions of the Western Corn Rootworm| journal = Science| url = http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1255&context=entomologyfacpub| volume = 310| issue = 5750| pages = 992| year = 2005| last1 = Miller | first1 = N.| last2 = Estoup| first2 = A| last3 = Toepfer| first3 = S| last4 = Bourguet| first4 = D| last5 = Lapchin| first5 = L| last6 = Derridj| first6 = S| last7 = Kim| first7 = K. S.| last8 = Reynaud| first8 = P| last9 = Furlan| first9 = L| last10 = Guillemaud| first10 = T| s2cid = 2489144| url-access = subscription}}</ref> At least three successive introductions gave rise to outbreaks detected in Serbia in 1992, the Italian [[Piedmont]] in 2000, and [[Ile-de-France]] in 2002. The European outbreaks observed in [[Alsace]] in 2003 and [[Ile-de-France]] in 2005 came from two additional introductions from [[North America]], bringing to five the number of transatlantic introductions.<ref name="Ciosi_2008">{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1111/j.1365-294X.2008.03866.x| pmid = 18662220| title = Invasion of Europe by the western corn rootworm, Diabrotica virgifera virgifera: Multiple transatlantic introductions with various reductions of genetic diversity| journal = Molecular Ecology| volume = 17| issue = 16| pages = 3614–27| year = 2008| last1 = Ciosi | first1 = M.| last2 = Miller | first2 = N. J.| last3 = Kim | first3 = K. S.| last4 = Giordano | first4 = R.| last5 = Estoup | first5 = A.| last6 = Guillemaud | first6 = T.| bibcode = 2008MolEc..17.3614C| s2cid = 16870803| url = https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/entomologyfacpub/249| url-access = subscription}}</ref> The exact North American origin of the European introductions has not yet been found, but the north of the US appears to be the most likely.<ref name="Ciosi_2008"/>
Small remote outbreaks in southern Germany and north-eastern Italy most likely originated from long-distance dispersal events from Central and southeastern Europe. The large European outbreak is thus likely expanding by stratified dispersal, involving both continuous diffusion and discontinuous long-distance dispersal. This latter mode of dispersal may accelerate expansion in Europe.<ref name="Ciosi_2011">{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1111/j.1752-4571.2010.00133.x| pmid = 25567953| pmc = 3352514| title = Stratified dispersal and increasing genetic variation during the invasion of Central Europe by the western corn rootworm, Diabrotica virgifera virgifera| journal = Evolutionary Applications| volume = 4| issue = 1| pages = 54–70| year = 2011| last1 = Ciosi | first1 = M.| last2 = Miller | first2 = N. J.| last3 = Toepfer | first3 = S.| last4 = Estoup | first4 = A.| last5 = Guillemaud | first5 = T.| bibcode = 2011EvApp...4...54C| url = http://eprints.gla.ac.uk/60370/1/60370.pdf}}</ref>