Editing Environmental racism (section)

=== South America ===

==== The Andes ====
Extracitivism, or the process of humans removing natural, raw resources from land to be used in product manufacturing, can have detrimental environmental and social repercussions. Research analyzing environmental conflicts in four Andean countries (Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia) found that conflicts tend to disproportionately affect indigenous populations and those with Afro-descent, and peasant communities.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Pérez-Rincón|first1=Mario|last2=Vargas-Morales|first2=Julieth|last3=Martinez-Alier|first3=Joan|date=1 March 2019|title=Mapping and Analyzing Ecological Distribution Conflicts in Andean Countries|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0921800917317925|journal=Ecological Economics|language=en|volume=157|pages=80–91|doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2018.11.004|bibcode=2019EcoEc.157...80P |s2cid=158620560|issn=0921-8009}}</ref> These conflicts can arise as a result of shifting economic patterns, land use policies, and social practices due to extractivist industries.

==== Chile ====
Beginning in the late 15th century when European explorers began sailing to the New World, the violence towards and oppression of indigenous populations have had lasting effects to this day. The Mapuche-Chilean land conflict has roots dating back several centuries. When the Spanish went to conquer parts of South America, the Mapuche were one of the only indigenous groups to successfully resist Spanish domination and maintain their sovereignty. Moving forward, relations between the Mapuche and the Chilean state declined into a condition of malice and resentment. Chile won its independence from Spain in 1818 and, wanting the Mapuche to assimilate into the Chilean state, began crafting harmful legislation that targeted the Mapuche. The Mapuche have based their economy, both historically and presently, on agriculture. By the mid-19th century, the state resorted to outright seizure of Mapuche lands, forcefully appropriating all but 5% of Mapuche lineal lands. An agrarian economy without land essentially meant that the Mapuche no longer had their means of production and subsistence. While some land has since been ceded back to the Mapuche, it is still a fraction of what the Mapuche once owned. Further, as the Chilean state has attempted to rebuild its relationship with the Mapuche community, the connection between the two is still strained by the legacy of the aforementioned history.

Today, the Mapuche people are the largest population of indigenous people in Chile, with 1.5 million people accounting for over 90% of the country's indigenous population.

====Ecuador====
[[File:Texaco in Ecuador.jpg|thumb|Aftermath of Lago Agrio oil field]]

Due to their lack of environmental laws, emerging countries like [[Ecuador]] have been subjected to environmental pollution, sometimes causing health problems, loss of agriculture, and poverty. In 1993, 30,000 Ecuadorians, which included [[Cofán people|Cofan]], Siona, [[Huaorani]], and Quichua indigenous people, filed a lawsuit against [[Texaco|Texaco oil company]] for the environmental damages caused by oil extraction activities in the [[Lago Agrio oil field]]. After handing control of the oil fields to an Ecuadorian oil company, Texaco did not properly dispose of its hazardous waste, causing great damages to the ecosystem and crippling communities.<ref>Copland, Liesl; Kamen, Jon; Berlinger, Joe. 2009. Crude: The Real Price of Oil; United States. Entendre Films, Red Envelope Entertainment.</ref> Additionally, UN experts have said that Afro-Ecuadorians and other people of African descent in Ecuador have faced greater challenges than other groups in accessing clean water, with minimal response from the State.<ref>{{cite web|title=Ecuador: Discrimination and Environmental Racism Against People of African descent Must End, Say UN Experts|url=https://www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=25452&LangID=E|website=United Nations Office of the High Commissioner}}</ref>

==== Haiti ====
Legacies of racism exist in Haiti, and affect the way that food grown by peasants domestically is viewed compared to foreign food.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Steckley|first=Marylynn|date=September 2016|title=Eating up the social ladder: the problem of dietary aspirations for food sovereignty|url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s10460-015-9622-y|journal=Agriculture and Human Values|language=en|volume=33|issue=3|pages=549–562|doi=10.1007/s10460-015-9622-y|issn=0889-048X|s2cid=141759179}}</ref> Racially coded hierarchies are associated with food that differs in origin – survey respondents reported that food such as millet and root crops are associated with negative connotations, while foreign-made food such as corn flakes and spaghetti are associated with positive connotations. This reliance on imports over domestic products reveals how racism ties to commercial tendencies – a reliance on imports can increase costs, fossil fuel emissions, and further social inequality as local farmers loose business.