Editing Transit-oriented development (section)

== Impacts ==

=== Environmental ===
TOD has been shown to reduce multiple types of emissions in Los Angeles during life-cycle assessments; greenhouse gasses, respiratory irritants, and smog forming emissions can be reduced by approximately 30% in TOD when compared to lower density areas. This is attributed to various factors including residents having more travel options, reduced travel distances for everyday activities, and higher density housing reducing energy use per residence.<ref name=":0a">{{Cite journal |last1=Nahlik |first1=Matthew J. |last2=Chester |first2=Mikhail V. |date=September 2014 |title=Transit-oriented smart growth can reduce life-cycle environmental impacts and household costs in Los Angeles |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0967070X14001036 |journal=Transport Policy |language=en |volume=35 |pages=21–30 |doi=10.1016/j.tranpol.2014.05.004|hdl=2286/R.I.25791 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> In Dhaka TOD can also aid in reducing travel related {{CO2}} emissions on a community level, specifically for work and school trips, due to residents traveling less distance to these locations. And it is suggested that the improvements in public transportation, pedestrian, and bicycle infrastructure that are associated with TOD and related policies may improve these reductions within Dhaka and other developing cities.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ashik |first1=F.R. |last2=Rahman |first2=M.H. |last3=Kamruzzaman |first3=M. |date=April 2022 |title=Investigating the impacts of transit-oriented development on transport-related {{CO2}} emissions |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1361920922000578 |journal=Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment |language=en |volume=105 |pages=103227 |doi=10.1016/j.trd.2022.103227|s2cid=247431376 |url-access=subscription }}</ref> However, TOD has also been found to be a major contributor to the urban heat island effect in Brisbane both having higher temperature and more rapidly increasing temperatures than non-TOD areas. This difference has been linked to TOD having a larger portion of non-porous land and less natural spaces, which must be considered when planning TOD.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kamruzzaman |first1=Md. |last2=Deilami |first2=Kaveh |last3=Yigitcanlar |first3=Tan |date=January 2018 |title=Investigating the urban heat island effect of transit oriented development in Brisbane |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0966692317303460 |journal=Journal of Transport Geography |language=en |volume=66 |pages=116–124 |doi=10.1016/j.jtrangeo.2017.11.016|bibcode=2018JTGeo..66..116K |s2cid=76650660 }}</ref>

=== Economic ===
TOD, specifically along light rail transit lines, have been seen to increase the amount of new businesses in Phoenix within one mile of a station, with businesses in the knowledge, service, and retail industries experiencing 88%, 40%, and 24% more new starts respectively than non-TOD areas. However, a decrease in manufacturing facilities has also been noted in TOD; similar results are likely to be seen in other U.S. cities.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Credit |first=Kevin |date=October 2018 |title=Transit-oriented economic development: The impact of light rail on new business starts in the Phoenix, AZ Region, USA |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0042098017724119 |journal=Urban Studies |language=en |volume=55 |issue=13 |pages=2838–2862 |doi=10.1177/0042098017724119 |bibcode=2018UrbSt..55.2838C |s2cid=158281230 |issn=0042-0980|url-access=subscription }}</ref> The value of condominiums in San Diego generally increases with decreasing distance from light rail transit stations, increasing walkability of neighborhoods, and increasing available services. This points to TOD as a preferable style of neighborhood to people, showing that market-driven creation of TOD neighborhoods may be possible in U.S. metropolitan areas.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Duncan |first=Michael |date=January 2011 |title=The Impact of Transit-oriented Development on Housing Prices in San Diego, CA |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0042098009359958 |journal=Urban Studies |language=en |volume=48 |issue=1 |pages=101–127 |doi=10.1177/0042098009359958 |pmid=21174895 |bibcode=2011UrbSt..48..101D |s2cid=22511401 |issn=0042-0980|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Resident expenses in TOD have been shown to be lower in well developed areas in spite of the generally higher rental costs due to lower energy use and travel costs, in Los Angeles the savings are around $3100 per year for one household.<ref name=":0a" />

=== Social ===
The studies on social impacts of TOD can be classified into three aspects. Behavioral impacts, psychological impacts and social impacts related to TOD induced gentrification and social inequality The social impact of TOD is categorized into three aspects:<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wang |first1=Fenglong |last2=Zheng |first2=Yuya |last3=Wu |first3=Wenjie |last4=Wang |first4=Donggen |date=2022-12-01 |title=The travel, equity and wellbeing impacts of transit-oriented development in Global South |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1361920922003388 |journal=Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment |language=en |volume=113 |pages=103512 |doi=10.1016/j.trd.2022.103512 |bibcode=2022TRPD..11303512W |s2cid=253516615 |issn=1361-9209|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

* Behavioral impacts that are related to the effect on car use and travel behavior. First, since lowering car dependency and car ownership is one of the major goals of TOD, the existing studies consistently showed that TOD was negatively associated with car ownership.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Combs |first1=Tabitha S. |last2=Rodríguez |first2=Daniel A. |date=2014-11-01 |title=Joint impacts of Bus Rapid Transit and urban form on vehicle ownership: New evidence from a quasi-longitudinal analysis in Bogotá, Colombia |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0965856414002055 |journal=Transportation Research Part A: Policy and Practice |language=en |volume=69 |pages=272–285 |doi=10.1016/j.tra.2014.08.025 |bibcode=2014TRPA...69..272C |issn=0965-8564|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Huang |first1=Xiaoyan |last2=Cao |first2=Xinyu (Jason) |last3=Yin |first3=Jiangbin |last4=Cao |first4=Xiaoshu |date=2017-05-01 |title=Effects of metro transit on the ownership of mobility instruments in Xi'an, China |journal=Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment |series=Land use and transportation in China |language=en |volume=52 |pages=495–505 |doi=10.1016/j.trd.2016.09.014 |issn=1361-9209|doi-access=free |bibcode=2017TRPD...52..495H }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Huang |first1=Xiaoyan |last2=(Jason) Cao |first2=Xinyu |last3=Yin |first3=Jiangbin |last4=Cao |first4=Xiaoshu |date=2019-09-01 |title=Can metro transit reduce driving? Evidence from Xi'an, China |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0967070X1630796X |journal=Transport Policy |language=en |volume=81 |pages=350–359 |doi=10.1016/j.tranpol.2018.03.006 |s2cid=158433875 |issn=0967-070X|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Zhang |first1=Yingjie |last2=Zheng |first2=Siqi |last3=Sun |first3=Cong |last4=Wang |first4=Rui |date=2017-05-01 |title=Does subway proximity discourage automobility? Evidence from Beijing |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1361920915302261 |journal=Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment |series=Land use and transportation in China |language=en |volume=52 |pages=506–517 |doi=10.1016/j.trd.2016.11.009 |bibcode=2017TRPD...52..506Z |issn=1361-9209|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Other studies focus on the influence of TOD on residents’ travel behaviors. Though it seems self-evident that residents living in TOD areas are easier and thus more likely to travel by public transport, the existence of residential differences and the TOD-reduced gentrification make the linkages between TOD and public travel trips complex.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Cao |first=Xinyu (Jason) |date=2015-10-01 |title=Heterogeneous effects of neighborhood type on commute mode choice: An exploration of residential dissonance in the Twin Cities |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0966692315001738 |journal=Journal of Transport Geography |language=en |volume=48 |pages=188–196 |doi=10.1016/j.jtrangeo.2015.09.010 |bibcode=2015JTGeo..48..188C |issn=0966-6923|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kamruzzaman |first1=Md. |last2=Baker |first2=Douglas |last3=Washington |first3=Simon |last4=Turrell |first4=Gavin |date=2013-12-01 |title=Residential dissonance and mode choice |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0966692313001737 |journal=Journal of Transport Geography |language=en |volume=33 |pages=12–28 |doi=10.1016/j.jtrangeo.2013.09.004 |bibcode=2013JTGeo..33...12K |s2cid=153613438 |issn=0966-6923}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kumar |first1=Santosh |last2=Vijay Kumar |first2=T V |date=October 2018 |title=A novel quantum-inspired evolutionary view selection algorithm |journal=Sādhanā |language=en |volume=43 |issue=10 |doi=10.1007/s12046-018-0936-5 |s2cid=255485307 |issn=0256-2499|doi-access=free }}</ref>
* Psychological impacts related to the subjective well-being and other sentiments. Studies on the psychological impacts of TOD mainly focus on subjective [[well-being]], especially satisfaction with the travel domain and the life in general. First, a series of studies have examined the effects of TOD on travel satisfaction. While traveling by public transit is usually less pleasant compared with driving or active travel, TOD as a well-defined transit area is likely to generate more comfortable traveling experiences.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Majumdar |first1=Bandhan Bandhu |last2=Jayakumar |first2=Malavika |last3=Sahu |first3=Prasanta K. |last4=Potoglou |first4=Dimitris |date=2021-09-01 |title=Identification of key determinants of travel satisfaction for developing policy instrument to improve quality of life: An analysis of commuting in Delhi |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0967070X21001931 |journal=Transport Policy |language=en |volume=110 |pages=281–292 |doi=10.1016/j.tranpol.2021.06.012 |s2cid=236234705 |issn=0967-070X}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Olsson |first1=Lars E. |last2=Gärling |first2=Tommy |last3=Ettema |first3=Dick |last4=Friman |first4=Margareta |last5=Fujii |first5=Satoshi |date=2013-03-01 |title=Happiness and Satisfaction with Work Commute |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-012-0003-2 |journal=Social Indicators Research |language=en |volume=111 |issue=1 |pages=255–263 |doi=10.1007/s11205-012-0003-2 |issn=1573-0921 |pmc=3560964 |pmid=23378683}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wang |first1=Fenglong |last2=Wang |first2=Donggen |date=2020 |title=Changes in residential satisfaction after home relocation: A longitudinal study in Beijing, China |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0042098019866378 |journal=Urban Studies |language=en |volume=57 |issue=3 |pages=583–601 |doi=10.1177/0042098019866378 |bibcode=2020UrbSt..57..583W |s2cid=203274610 |issn=0042-0980|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Likewise, residents living within the TOD area tended to be more satisfied with public commuting.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Wu |first=Wenjie |date=2014 |title=Does Public Investment Improve Homeowners' Happiness? New Evidence based on Micro Surveys in Beijing |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0042098013484530 |journal=Urban Studies |language=en |volume=51 |issue=1 |pages=75–92 |doi=10.1177/0042098013484530 |bibcode=2014UrbSt..51...75W |s2cid=154641432 |issn=0042-0980|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Nonetheless, since travel is an important life domain, satisfaction with public transport system is expected to significantly contribute to overall wellbeing.
* Impacts related to social inequality and TOD-induced gentrification. TOD is usually associated with regeneration of the old urban land use and increasing housing values, it may crowd out the low-income groups and cause large-scale residential mobility, significant neighborhood change and considerable upgrading of the TOD areas.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Cervero |first1=Robert |last2=Murakami |first2=Jin |date=2009 |title=Rail and Property Development in Hong Kong: Experiences and Extensions |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0042098009339431 |journal=Urban Studies |language=en |volume=46 |issue=10 |pages=2019–2043 |doi=10.1177/0042098009339431 |bibcode=2009UrbSt..46.2019C |s2cid=155004592 |issn=0042-0980|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Yang |first1=Linchuan |last2=Chau |first2=K. W. |last3=Szeto |first3=W. Y. |last4=Cui |first4=Xu |last5=Wang |first5=Xu |date=2020-08-01 |title=Accessibility to transit, by transit, and property prices: Spatially varying relationships |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1361920920305745 |journal=Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment |language=en |volume=85 |pages=102387 |doi=10.1016/j.trd.2020.102387 |bibcode=2020TRPD...8502387Y |s2cid=225520960 |issn=1361-9209|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Accordingly, TOD-induced gentrification is an emerging topic in transportation research in the recent decade.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Dawkins |first1=Casey |last2=Moeckel |first2=Rolf |date=2016-09-02 |title=Transit-Induced Gentrification: Who Will Stay, and Who Will Go? |url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/10511482.2016.1138986 |journal=Housing Policy Debate |language=en |volume=26 |issue=4–5 |pages=801–818 |doi=10.1080/10511482.2016.1138986 |hdl=1903/21508 |s2cid=35874559 |issn=1051-1482|hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Citation |last=Delmelle |first=Elizabeth C. |title=Chapter Six - Transit-induced gentrification and displacement: The state of the debate |date=2021-01-01 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2543000921000275 |work=Advances in Transport Policy and Planning |volume=8 |pages=173–190 |editor-last=Pereira |editor-first=Rafael H. M. |access-date=2023-07-07 |series=Social Issues in Transport Planning |publisher=Academic Press |language=en |doi=10.1016/bs.atpp.2021.06.005 |editor2-last=Boisjoly |editor2-first=Geneviève|url-access=subscription }}</ref>