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Psychoanalysis
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==Training and research== Psychoanalysis continues to be practiced by psychiatrists, social workers, and other mental health professionals; however, its practice has declined.<ref name="Science">{{cite journal|date=25 February 2005|title=French Psychoflap|journal=Science|volume=307|issue=5713|pages=1197a|doi=10.1126/science.307.5713.1197a|s2cid=220106659}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title=Is Psychoanalysis Still Relevant to Psychiatry?|year=2017|pmc=5459228|last1=Paris|first1=J.|journal=Canadian Journal of Psychiatry|volume=62|issue=5|pages=308β312|doi=10.1177/0706743717692306|pmid=28141952}}</ref> It has been largely replaced by the similar but broader [[psychodynamic psychotherapy]] in the mid-20th century.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Freedheim |first1=D.K. |last2=DiFilippo |first2=J.M |last3=Klostermann |first3=S. |title=Encyclopedia of Mental Health |date=2015 |publisher=Elsevier |location=New York |isbn=978-0-12-397753-3 |pages=348β356 |edition=2nd}}</ref> Psychoanalytic approaches continue to be listed by the UK [[National Health Service]] as possibly helpful for depression.<ref>{{cite web|title=Clinical depression β Treatment|url=https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/clinical-depression/treatment/|date=2017-10-24}}</ref> ===United States=== {{More citations needed section|date=May 2020}} Psychoanalytic training in the United States tends to vary according to the program, but it involves a personal psychoanalysis for the trainee, approximately 300 to 600 hours of class instruction, with a standard curriculum, over a two to five-year period.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Winarick |first=Kenneth |date=2010-03-01 |title=Training at the American Institute for Psychoanalysis |url=https://doi.org/10.1057/ajp.2009.43 |journal=The American Journal of Psychoanalysis |language=en |volume=70 |issue=1 |pages=61β62 |doi=10.1057/ajp.2009.43 |pmid=20212440 |s2cid=40577817 |issn=1573-6741|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Typically, this psychoanalysis must be conducted by a Supervising and Training Analyst. Most institutes (but not all) within the American Psychoanalytic Association require that Supervising and Training Analysts become certified by the American Board of Psychoanalysts. Certification entails a blind review in which the psychoanalyst's work is vetted by psychoanalysts outside of their local community. After earning certification, these psychoanalysts undergo another hurdle in which they are specially vetted by senior members of their own institute and held to the highest ethical and moral standards. Moreover, they are required to have extensive experience conducting psychoanalyses.<ref>{{cite web|title=What is Certification?|url=https://www.abpsa.org/page-18053|date=2017-06-09}}</ref> Candidates generally have an hour of supervision each week per psychoanalytic case. The minimum number of cases varies between institutes. Candidates often have two to four cases; both male and female cases are required. Supervision extends at least a few years on one or more cases. During supervision, the trainee presents material from the psychoanalytic work that week. With the supervisor, the trainee then explores the patient's unconscious conflicts with examination of transference-countertransference constellations.<ref name="academic.oup.com" /> Many psychoanalytic training centers in the United States have been accredited by special committees of the APsaA or the IPA. Because of theoretical differences, there are independent institutes, usually founded by psychologists, who until 1987 were not permitted access to psychoanalytic training institutes of the APsaA. Currently, there are between 75 and 100 independent institutes in the United States. As well, other institutes are affiliated to other organizations such as the [[American Academy of Psychoanalysis and Dynamic Psychiatry]], and the National Association for the Advancement of Psychoanalysis. At most psychoanalytic institutes in the United States, qualifications for entry include a terminal degree in a mental health field, such as Ph.D., Psy.D., M.S.W., or M.D. A few institutes restrict applicants to those already holding an M.D. or Ph.D., and most institutes in Southern California confer a Ph.D. or [[Psy.D.]] in psychoanalysis upon graduation, which involves completion of the necessary requirements for the state boards that confer that doctoral degree. The first training institute in America to educate non-medical psychoanalysts was The National Psychological Association for Psychoanalysis (1978) in New York City. It was founded by the analyst Theodor Reik. The Contemporary Freudian (originally the New York Freudian Society), an offshoot of the National Psychological Association has a branch in Washington, DC. It is a component society/institute or the IPA.{{Citation needed|date=May 2020}} Some psychoanalytic training has been set up as a post-doctoral fellowship in university settings, such as at Duke University, Yale University, New York University, Adelphi University and Columbia University. Other psychoanalytic institutes may not be directly associated with universities, but the faculty at those institutes usually hold contemporaneous faculty positions with psychology Ph.D. programs and/or with medical school psychiatry residency programs.{{Citation needed|date=May 2020}} In recent decades, some graduate schools and psychoanalytic institutions have developed programs leading to [[Doctoral education in psychoanalysis|doctoral degrees in psychoanalysis]]. Several institutions in the United States have offered such degrees, such as the [[Boston Graduate School of Psychoanalysis]] (which awards the Doctor of Psychoanalysis or Psya.D. degree<ref>{{Cite web |title=Doctor of Psychoanalysis (PsyaD) |url=https://bgsp.edu/academics/degree-programs/doctor-of-psychoanalysis/ |access-date=2025-05-08 |website=Boston Graduate School of Psychoanalysis |language=en-US}}</ref>) and the Center for Psychoanalytic Study in [[Chicago]], [[Illinois]], (which awarded the D.Psa. degree). In addition, a number of psychoanalytic training institutes in [[California]] historically awarded doctoral degrees (including [[Doctor of Philosophy|Ph.D.]] and [[Doctor of Psychology|Psy.D.]] degrees), including the Institute of Contemporary Psychoanalysis, the [[New Center for Psychoanalysis|Los Angeles Psychoanalytic Society and Institute]], the [[New Center for Psychoanalysis]], the Newport Psychoanalytic Institute, the [[Psychoanalytic Center of California]], and Psychoanalytic Institute of Northern California, and the [[New Center for Psychoanalysis|Southern California Psychoanalytic Institute and Society]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Bureau for Private and Post-Secondary Education β BPPE |url=https://www.bppe.ca.gov/ |access-date=2025-05-08 |website=www.bppe.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> Internationally, several universities award doctoral degrees in psychoanalysis and psychoanalytic studies, including [[University College London]]<ref>{{Cite web |last=UCL |date=2018-06-05 |title=MPhil/PhD in Psychoanalytic Studies |url=https://www.ucl.ac.uk/psychoanalysis/mphilphd-psychoanalytic-studies |access-date=2025-05-08 |website=Psychoanalysis Unit |language=en}}</ref> and the [[University of Essex]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=PhD Psychoanalytic Studies β Psychoanalytic Studies Degree {{!}} University of Essex |url=https://www.essex.ac.uk/courses/PR00969/1/PhD-Psychoanalytic-Studies |access-date=2025-05-08 |website=www.essex.ac.uk |language=en}}</ref> The IPA is the world's primary accrediting and regulatory body for psychoanalysis. Their mission is to assure the continued vigor and development of psychoanalysis for the benefit of psychoanalytic patients. It works in partnership with its 70 constituent organizations in 33 countries to support 11,500 members. In the US, there are 77 psychoanalytical organizations, institutes and associations, which are spread across the states. APsaA has 38 affiliated societies which have 10 or more active members who practice in a given geographical area. The aims of APsaA and other psychoanalytical organizations are: to provide ongoing educational opportunities for its members, stimulate the development and research of psychoanalysis, provide training, and organize conferences. There are eight affiliated study groups in the United States. A study group is the first level of integration of a psychoanalytical body within the IPA, followed by a provisional society and finally a member society.{{Citation needed|date=May 2020}} The Division of Psychoanalysis (39) of the [[American Psychological Association]] (APA) was established in the early 1980s by several psychologists. Until the establishment of the Division of Psychoanalysis, psychologists who had trained in independent institutes had no national organization. The Division of Psychoanalysis now has approximately 4,000 members and approximately 30 local chapters in the United States. The Division of Psychoanalysis holds two annual meetings or conferences and offers continuing education in theory, research and clinical technique, as do their affiliated local chapters. The European Psychoanalytical Federation (EPF) is the organization which consolidates all European psychoanalytic societies. This organization is affiliated with the IPA. In 2002, there were approximately 3,900 individual members in 22 countries, speaking 18 different languages. There are also 25 psychoanalytic societies.{{Citation needed|date=May 2020}} The American Association of Psychoanalysis in Clinical Social Work (AAPCSW) was established by Crayton Rowe in 1980 as a division of the Federation of Clinical Societies of Social Work and became an independent entity in 1990. Until 2007 it was known as the National Membership Committee on Psychoanalysis. The organization was founded because although social workers represented the largest number of people who were training to be psychoanalysts, they were underrepresented as supervisors and teachers at the institutes they attended. AAPCSW now has over 1000 members and has over 20 chapters. It holds a bi-annual national conference and numerous annual local conferences.<ref name="AAPCSWHistory">{{cite web |title=History |url=https://www.aapcsw.org/about_us/history.html |website=American Association for Psychoanalysis in Clinical Social Work |publisher=AAPCSW |access-date=23 February 2025}}</ref> Experiences of psychoanalysts and psychoanalytic psychotherapists and research into infant and child development have led to new insights. Theories have been further developed and the results of [[empirical research]] are now more integrated in the [[psychoanalytic theory]].<ref name="NPI">{{citation |url = http://www.psychoanalytischinstituut.nl/ |title = Nederlands Psychoanalytisch Instituut |url-status = dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20081014064319/http://www.psychoanalytischinstituut.nl/ |archive-date = 2008-10-14 }}</ref> ===United Kingdom=== {{More citations needed section|date=May 2020}} The London Psychoanalytical Society was founded by [[Ernest Jones]] on 30 October 1913.{{Citation needed|date=May 2020}} After [[World War I]] with the expansion of psychoanalysis in the United Kingdom, the Society was reconstituted and named the [[British Psychoanalytical Society]] in 1919. Soon after, the Institute of Psychoanalysis was established to administer the Society's activities. These include: the training of psychoanalysts, the development of the theory and practice of psychoanalysis, the provision of treatment through The London Clinic of Psychoanalysis, the publication of books in The New Library of Psychoanalysis and Psychoanalytic Ideas. The Institute of Psychoanalysis also publishes ''[[The International Journal of Psychoanalysis]]'', maintains a library, furthers research, and holds public lectures. The society has a Code of Ethics and an Ethical Committee. The society, the institute and the clinic are all located at ''Byron House'' in [[West London]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=wbepba |title=Our history |url=https://www.psychoanalysis-bpa.org/about/history/ |access-date=2023-12-15 |website=BPA |language=en-GB}}</ref> The Society is a constituent society of the [[International Psychoanalytical Association]] (IPA), a body with members on all five continents which safeguards professional and ethical practice.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Home |url=https://www.ipa.world/ |access-date=2023-12-15 |website=www.ipa.world}}</ref> The Society is a member of the British Psychoanalytic Council (BPC); the BPC publishes a register of British psychoanalysts and psychoanalytical psychotherapists. All members of the British Psychoanalytic Council are required to undertake [[continuing professional development]], CPD. Members of the Society teach and hold posts on other approved psychoanalytic courses, e.g. [[British Psychotherapy Foundation]], and in academic departments, e.g. [[University College London]]. Members of the Society have included: [[Michael Balint]], [[Wilfred Bion]], [[John Bowlby]], [[Ronald Fairbairn]], [[Anna Freud]], [[Harry Guntrip]], [[Melanie Klein]], [[Donald Meltzer]], [[Joseph J. Sandler]], [[Hanna Segal]], [[J. D. Sutherland]] and [[Donald Winnicott]]. The [[British Psychoanalytical Society|Institute of Psychoanalysis]] is the foremost publisher of psychoanalytic literature. The 24-volume ''Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud'' was conceived, translated, and produced under the direction of the British Psychoanalytical Society. The Society, in conjunction with [[Random House]], will soon publish a new, revised and expanded Standard Edition. With the New Library of Psychoanalysis the Institute continues to publish the books of leading theorists and practitioners. ''The International Journal of Psychoanalysis'' is published by the Institute of Psychoanalysis. For over 100 years, it has one of the largest circulations of any psychoanalytic journal.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Admin |title=Home |url=https://www.theijp.org/ |access-date=2023-12-15 |website=The International Journal of Psychoanalysis |language=en-GB}}</ref> ===Psychoanalytic psychotherapy=== <!--'Psychoanalytic psychotherapy' redirects here--> There are different forms of psychoanalysis and [[psychotherapies|psychotherapy]] in which psychoanalytic thinking is applied. In addition to classical psychoanalysis, there is for example '''psychoanalytic psychotherapy'''<!--boldface per WP:R#PLA-->, an approach that expands "the accessibility of psychoanalytic theory and clinical practices that had evolved over 100 plus years to a larger number of individuals."<ref>[What is Psychoanalytic Psychotherapy? Toronto Psychoanalytic Society and Institute β ]</ref> Other examples of well known therapies which also use insights of psychoanalysis are [[mentalization-based treatment]] (MBT), and [[transference focused psychotherapy]] (TFP).<ref name="NPI" /> There is also a continuing influence of psychoanalytic thinking in mental health care and psychiatric care.<ref>{{citation |url = http://www.npg-utrecht.nl/npg.htm |title = Nederlands Psychoanalytisch Genootschap |url-status = dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090916045816/http://www.npg-utrecht.nl/npg.htm |archive-date = September 16, 2009}}</ref> ===Research=== {{More citations needed section|date=May 2020}} Over a hundred years of case reports and studies in the journal ''Modern Psychoanalysis'', the ''[[Psychoanalytic Quarterly]]'', the ''International Journal of Psychoanalysis'' and the ''[[Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association]]'' have analyzed the efficacy of analysis in cases of [[neurosis]] and character or [[Wiktionary:personality|personality]] problems. Psychoanalysis modified by object relations techniques has been shown to be effective in many cases of ingrained problems of intimacy and relationship (cf. the many books of Otto Kernberg).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Christopher |first1=John Chambers |last2=Bickhard |first2=Mark H. |last3=Lambeth |first3=Gregory Scott |date=October 2001 |title=Otto Kernberg's Object Relations Theory: A Metapsychological Critique |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0959354301115006 |journal=Theory & Psychology |language=en |volume=11 |issue=5 |pages=687β711 |doi=10.1177/0959354301115006 |s2cid=145583990 |issn=0959-3543|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Psychoanalytic treatment, in other situations, may run from about a year to many years, depending on the severity and complexity of the pathology. Psychoanalytic theory has, from its inception, been the subject of criticism and controversy. Freud remarked on this early in his career, when other physicians in Vienna ostracized him for his findings that hysterical conversion symptoms were not limited to women. Challenges to analytic theory began with [[Otto Rank]] and [[Alfred Adler]] (turn of the 20th century), continued with behaviorists (e.g. [[Joseph Wolpe|Wolpe]]) into the 1940s and '50s, and have persisted (e.g. [[Alice Miller (psychologist)|Miller]]). Criticisms come from those who object to the notion that there are mechanisms, thoughts or feelings in the mind that could be unconscious. Criticisms also have been leveled against the idea of "infantile sexuality" (the recognition that children between ages two and six imagine things about procreation). Criticisms of theory have led to variations in analytic theories, such as the work of [[Ronald Fairbairn]], [[Michael Balint]], and [[John Bowlby]]. In the past 30 years or so, the criticisms have centered on the issue of empirical verification; it is difficult to substantiate the efficacy of psychoanalytic treatments in a psychiatric context.<ref>{{citation |author = Tallis RC |year = 1996 |url = http://www.human-nature.com/freud/tallis.html |title = Burying Freud |journal = Lancet |volume = 347 |pages = 669β671 |pmid = 8596386 |doi = 10.1016/S0140-6736(96)91210-6 |issue = 9002 |s2cid = 35537033 |url-access = subscription }}</ref> Psychoanalysis has been used as a research tool in childhood development (cf. the journal ''The Psychoanalytic Study of the Child''), and has developed into a flexible, effective treatment for certain mental disturbances.<ref name="Wallerstein 2000" /> In the 1960s, Freud's early (1905) thoughts on the childhood development of [[Human female sexuality|female sexuality]] were challenged; this challenge led to major research in the 1970s and 80s, and then to a reformulation of female sexual development that corrected some of Freud's concepts.<ref>{{citation |editor = Blum HP |year = 1977 |title = Female Psychology |location = New York |publisher = International Universities Press }}</ref> Also see the various works of Eleanor Galenson, [[Nancy Chodorow]], [[Karen Horney]], [[FranΓ§oise Dolto]], [[Melanie Klein]], [[Selma Fraiberg]], and others. Most recently, psychoanalytic researchers who have integrated attachment theory into their work, including Alicia Lieberman and [[Daniel Schechter]], have explored the role of parental traumatization in the development of young children's mental representations of self and others.<ref>{{cite journal |author1 = Schechter DS |author2 = Zygmunt A |author3 = Coates SW |author4 = Davies M |author5 = Trabka KA |author6 = McCaw J |author7 = Kolodji A. |author8 = Robinson JL |year = 2007 |title = Caregiver traumatization adversely impacts young children's mental representations of self and others |journal = Attachment & Human Development |volume = 9 |issue = 3 |pages = 187β20 |doi = 10.1080/14616730701453762 |pmid = 18007959 |pmc = 2078523 }}</ref>
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