Editing Animal cognition (section)

=== Numeracy ===
{{Main|Number sense in animals}}
A variety of studies indicates that animals are able to use and communicate quantitative information, and that some can count in a rudimentary way.  Some examples of this research follow.

In one study, rhesus monkeys viewed visual displays containing, for example, 1, 2, 3, or 4 items of different sorts. They were trained to respond to them in several ways involving numerical ordering, for example touching "1" first, "2" second and so on.  When tested with displays containing items they had never seen before, they continued to respond to them in order. The authors conclude that monkeys can represent the numerosities 1 to 9 at least on an ordinal scale.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Brannon EM, Terrace HS | title = Representation of the numerosities 1-9 by rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta) | journal = Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes | volume = 26 | issue = 1 | pages = 31–49 | date = January 2000 | pmid = 10650542 | doi = 10.1037/0097-7403.26.1.31 | url = http://www.columbia.edu/cu/psychology/primatecognitionlab/References/BrannonTerrace2000.pdf}}</ref>

[[Ants]] are able to use quantitative values and transmit this information.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Reznikova | first1 = Zhanna | last2 = Ryabko | first2 = Boris | name-list-style = vanc | year = 2001 | title = A Study of Ants' Numerical Competence | journal = [[Electronic Transactions on Artificial Intelligence]] | volume = 5 | pages = 111–126}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Reznikova ZI | date = 2007 | title = Animal Intelligence: From Individual to Social Cognition | publisher = Cambridge University Press}}</ref> For instance, ants of several species are able to estimate quite precisely numbers of encounters with members of other colonies on their feeding territories.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Reznikova ZI | year = 1999 | title = Ethological mechanisms of population dynamic in species ant communities | journal = Russian Journal of Ecology | volume = 30 | issue = 3| pages = 187–197}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Brown MJ, Gordon DM |year = 2000 |title = How resources and encounters affect the distribution of foraging activity in a seed-harvesting ants |journal = Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology |volume = 47 |pages = 195–203 |doi = 10.1007/s002650050011 |issue = 3 |bibcode = 2000BEcoS..47..195B |s2cid = 15454830}}</ref> 
Moreover, ants of some species can count up to 20 and add and subtract numbers within 5.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Reznikova |first1=Zhanna |author2=Ryabko, Boris |title=Numerical competence in animals, with an insight from ants |journal=Behaviour |date=2011 |volume=148 |issue=4 |pages=405–434 |doi=10.1163/000579511X568562 |citeseerx=10.1.1.303.1824}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Reznikova |first1=Zhanna |title=Studying Animal Language Without Translation: An Insight From Ants |date=2017 |publisher=Springer |location=Switzerland |isbn=978-3-319-44916-6 |doi=10.1007/978-3-319-44918-0}}</ref> 
This has been demonstrated using carefully crafted experiments based on measuring the time it takes for a scouting ant to pass the information to its team about the branch of an experimental maze on which food can be found.

Numeracy has been described in the yellow mealworm beetle (''[[Tenebrio molitor]]'')<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Carazo P, Font E, Forteza-Behrendt E, Desfilis E | title = Quantity discrimination in Tenebrio molitor: evidence of numerosity discrimination in an invertebrate? | journal = Animal Cognition | volume = 12 | issue = 3 | pages = 463–70 | date = May 2009 | pmid = 19118405 | doi = 10.1007/s10071-008-0207-7 | s2cid = 14502342}}</ref> and the honeybee.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Dacke M, Srinivasan MV | title = Evidence for counting in insects | journal = Animal Cognition | volume = 11 | issue = 4 | pages = 683–9 | date = October 2008 | pmid = 18504627 | doi = 10.1007/s10071-008-0159-y | s2cid = 22273226}}</ref>

[[Western lowland gorilla]]s given the choice between two food trays demonstrated the ability to choose the tray with more food items at a rate higher than chance after training.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Anderson US, Stoinski TS, Bloomsmith MA, Marr MJ, Smith AD, Maple TL | title = Relative numerousness judgment and summation in young and old Western lowland gorillas | journal = Journal of Comparative Psychology | volume = 119 | issue = 3 | pages = 285–95 | date = August 2005 | pmid = 16131257 | doi = 10.1037/0735-7036.119.3.285}}</ref> In a similar task, [[Common chimpanzee|chimpanzee]]s chose the option with the larger amount of food.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Boysen ST, Berntson GG, Mukobi KL | title = Size matters: impact of item size and quantity on array choice by chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) | journal = Journal of Comparative Psychology | volume = 115 | issue = 1 | pages = 106–10 | date = March 2001 | pmid = 11334213 | doi = 10.1037/0735-7036.115.1.106 | url = https://animalstudiesrepository.org/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1147&context=acwp_asie| url-access = subscription }}</ref> [[Salamander]]s given a choice between two displays with differing amounts of fruit flies, used as a food reward, reliably choose the display with more flies, as shown in a particular experiment.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Uller C, Jaeger R, Guidry G, Martin C | title = Salamanders ( Plethodon cinereus) go for more: rudiments of number in an amphibian | journal = Animal Cognition | volume = 6 | issue = 2 | pages = 105–12 | date = June 2003 | pmid = 12709845 | doi = 10.1007/s10071-003-0167-x | s2cid = 147018}}</ref>

Other experiments have been conducted that show animals' abilities to differentiate between non-food quantities. [[American black bear]]s demonstrated quantity differentiation abilities in a task with a computer screen.  The bears were trained to touch a computer monitor with a paw or nose to choose a quantity of dots in one of two boxes on the screen.  Each bear was trained with [[reinforcement]] to pick a larger or smaller amount.  During training, the bears were rewarded with food for a correct response.  All bears performed better than what random error predicted on the trials with static, non-moving dots, indicating that they could differentiate between the two quantities.  The bears choosing correctly in congruent (number of dots coincided with area of the dots) and incongruent (number of dots did not coincide with area of the dots) trials suggests that they were indeed choosing between quantities that appeared on the screen, not just a larger or smaller [[retina|retinal image]], which would indicate they are only judging size.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Vonk J, Beran MJ | title = Bears "Count" Too: Quantity Estimation and Comparison in Black Bears (Ursus Americanus) | journal = Animal Behaviour | volume = 84 | issue = 1 | pages = 231–238 | date = July 2012 | pmid = 22822244 | pmc = 3398692 | doi = 10.1016/j.anbehav.2012.05.001}}</ref>

[[Bottlenose dolphin]]s have shown the ability to choose an array with fewer dots compared to one with more dots.  Experimenters set up two boards showing various numbers of dots in a poolside setup.  The dolphins were initially trained to choose the board with the fewer number of dots. This was done by rewarding the dolphin when it chose the board with the fewer number of dots.  In the experimental trials, two boards were set up, and the dolphin would emerge from the water and point to one board.  The dolphins chose the arrays with fewer dots at a rate much larger than chance, indicating they can differentiate between quantities.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Jaakkola K, Fellner W, Erb L, Rodriguez M, Guarino E | title = Understanding of the concept of numerically "less" by bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) | journal = Journal of Comparative Psychology | volume = 119 | issue = 3 | pages = 296–303 | date = August 2005 | pmid = 16131258 | doi = 10.1037/0735-7036.119.3.296}}</ref>
A particular [[grey parrot]], after training, has shown the ability to differentiate between the numbers zero through six using [[Talking bird|vocalizations]].  After number and vocalization training, this was done by asking the parrot how many objects there were in a display.  The parrot was able to identify the correct amount at a rate higher than chance.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Pepperberg IM | title = Grey parrot numerical competence: a review | journal = Animal Cognition | volume = 9 | issue = 4 | pages = 377–91 | date = October 2006 | pmid = 16909236 | doi = 10.1007/s10071-006-0034-7 | s2cid = 30689821}}</ref>
[[Pterophyllum|Angelfish]], when put in an unfamiliar environment will group together with conspecifics, an action named [[Shoaling and schooling|shoaling]].  Given the choice between two groups of differing size, the angelfish will choose the larger of the two groups.  This can be seen with a discrimination ratio of 2:1 or greater, such that, as long as one group has at least twice the fish as another group, it will join the larger one.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Gómez-Laplaza LM, Gerlai R | title = Can angelfish (Pterophyllum scalare) count? Discrimination between different shoal sizes follows Weber's law | journal = Animal Cognition | volume = 14 | issue = 1 | pages = 1–9 | date = January 2011 | pmid = 20607574 | doi = 10.1007/s10071-010-0337-6 | s2cid = 26488837}}</ref>

[[Monitor lizard]]s have been shown to be capable of numeracy, and some species can distinguish among numbers up to six.<ref>{{cite book | last1 = King | first1 = Dennis | last2 = Green | first2 = Brian | name-list-style = vanc | date = 1999 | title = Goannas: The Biology of Varanid Lizards | publisher = University of New South Wales Press | isbn = 0-86840-456-X | page = 43}}</ref>