Editing German language (section)

==Orthography==
{{Main|German orthography|German braille}}

[[File:Oesterreichische Schulschrift 1995, 2 - Schraegschrift.jpg|right|thumb|Austria's standardized [[cursive]]]]
[[File:Vereinfachte Ausgangsschrift.png|thumb|Germany's standardized cursive]]

Written texts in German are easily recognisable as such by distinguishing features such as [[Germanic umlaut|umlauts]] and certain [[German orthography|orthographical]] features, such as the capitalization of all nouns, and the frequent occurrence of long compounds. Because legibility and convenience set certain boundaries, compounds consisting of more than three or four nouns are almost exclusively found in humorous contexts. (English also can string nouns together, though it usually separates the nouns with spaces: as, for example, "toilet bowl cleaner".)

In German orthography, nouns are capitalized, which makes it easier for readers to determine the function of a word within a sentence. This convention is almost unique to German today (shared perhaps only by the closely related [[Luxembourgish]] language and several insular dialects of the [[North Frisian language]]), but it was historically common in Northern Europe in the early modern era, including in languages such as Danish which abolished the capitalization of nouns in 1948, and English for a while, into the 1700s.

===Present===
Before the [[German orthography reform of 1996]], ''ß'' replaced ''ss'' after [[vowel length|long vowels]] and [[diphthong]]s and before consonants, word-, or partial-word endings. In reformed spelling, ''ß'' replaces ''ss'' only after long vowels and diphthongs.

Since there is no traditional capital form of ''ß'', it was replaced by ''SS'' (or ''SZ'') when capitalization was required. For example, {{lang|de|Maßband}} (tape measure) became {{lang|de|MASSBAND}} in capitals. An exception was the use of ß in legal documents and forms when capitalizing names. To avoid confusion with similar names, lower case ''ß'' was sometimes maintained (thus "{{lang|de|KREßLEIN}}" instead of "{{lang|de|KRESSLEIN}}"). [[Capital ß]] (ẞ) was ultimately adopted into German orthography in 2017, ending a long orthographic debate (thus "{{lang|de|KREẞLEIN}} and {{lang|de|KRESSLEIN}}").<ref>{{cite web|url=https://qz.com/1033265/germanys-century-long-debate-over-a-missing-letter-in-its-alphabet |website=Quartz |title=Germany has ended a century-long debate over a missing letter in its alphabet|last=Ha|first=Thu-Huong|date=20 July 2017|language=en|access-date=5 December 2017|quote=According to the council's 2017 spelling manual: When writing the uppercase [of ß], write SS. It's also possible to use the uppercase ẞ. Example: Straße – STRASSE – STRAẞE.|archive-date=22 November 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171122004645/https://qz.com/1033265/germanys-century-long-debate-over-a-missing-letter-in-its-alphabet/|url-status=live}}</ref>

Umlaut vowels (ä, ö, ü) are commonly transcribed with ae, oe, and ue if the umlauts are not available on the keyboard or other medium used. In the same manner, ß can be transcribed as ss. Some [[operating systems]] use key sequences to extend the set of possible characters to include, amongst other things, umlauts; in [[Microsoft Windows]] this is done using [[Alt codes]]. German readers understand these transcriptions (although they appear unusual), but they are avoided if the regular umlauts are available, because they are a makeshift and not proper spelling. (In Westphalia and Schleswig-Holstein, city and family names exist where the extra e has a vowel lengthening effect, e.g. ''Raesfeld'' {{IPA|de|ˈraːsfɛlt|}}, ''Coesfeld'' {{IPA|[ˈkoːsfɛlt]}} and ''Itzehoe'' {{IPA|[ɪtsəˈhoː]}}, but this use of the letter e after a/o/u does not occur in the present-day spelling of words other than [[proper noun]]s.)

{{Listen
|filename = German alphabet-2.ogg
|title = German alphabet
|description = (Listen to a German speaker recite the alphabet in German)
}}

There is no general agreement on where letters with umlauts occur in the sorting sequence. Telephone directories treat them by replacing them with the base vowel followed by an e. Some dictionaries sort each umlauted vowel as a separate letter after the base vowel, but more commonly words with umlauts are ordered immediately after the same word without umlauts. As an example in a [[telephone directory|telephone book]] {{lang|de|Ärzte}} occurs after {{lang|de|Adressenverlage}} but before {{lang|de|Anlagenbauer}} (because Ä is replaced by Ae). In a dictionary {{lang|de|Ärzte}} comes after {{lang|de|Arzt}}, but in some dictionaries {{lang|de|Ärzte}} and all other words starting with ''Ä'' may occur after all words starting with ''A''. In some older dictionaries or indexes, initial ''Sch'' and ''St'' are treated as separate letters and are listed as separate entries after ''S'', but they are usually treated as S+C+H and S+T.

Written German also typically uses an alternative opening inverted comma ([[quotation mark]]) as in {{lang|de|„Guten Morgen!“}}.

===Past===
[[File:Fraktur-ru.jpg|thumb|A Russian dictionary from 1931, showing the "German alphabet"&nbsp;– the 3rd and 4th columns of each half are [[Fraktur]] and [[Kurrent]] respectively, with the footnote explaining [[typographic ligature|ligatures]] used in Fraktur]]
{{Further|2nd Orthographic Conference (German)|Antiqua–Fraktur dispute|German orthography reform of 1944}}
Until the early 20th century, German was printed in [[blackletter]] [[typeface]]s (in [[Fraktur]], and in [[Schwabacher]]), and written in corresponding [[penmanship|handwriting]] (for example [[Kurrent]] and [[Sütterlin]]). These variants of the Latin alphabet are very different from the serif or [[sans-serif]] [[Antiqua (typeface class)|Antiqua]] typefaces used today, and the handwritten forms in particular are difficult for the untrained to read. The printed forms, however, were claimed by some to be more readable when used for [[Germanic languages]].{{sfn|Reinecke|1910|p=55}} The [[Nazism|Nazis]] initially promoted Fraktur and Schwabacher because they were considered [[Aryan]], but they abolished them in 1941, claiming that these letters were Jewish.<ref>{{cite web |last=Bormann |first=Martin |date=8 January 1941 |title=Der Bormann-Brief im Original |trans-title=The original Bormann letter |url=http://ligaturix.de/bormann.htm |access-date=20 November 2020 |publisher=[[Nazi Party|NSDAP]] |language=de |quote=Facsimile of Bormann's Memorandum<br /> The memorandum itself is typed in Antiqua, but the NSDAP [[letterhead]] is printed in Fraktur.<br />"For general attention, on behalf of the Führer, I make the following announcement:<br />It is wrong to regard or to describe the so-called Gothic script as a German script. In reality, the so-called Gothic script consists of Schwabach Jew letters. Just as they later took control of the newspapers, upon the introduction of printing the Jews residing in Germany took control of the printing presses and thus in Germany the Schwabach Jew letters were forcefully introduced.<br />Today the Führer, talking with Herr Reichsleiter Amann and Herr Book Publisher Adolf Müller, has decided that in the future the Antiqua script is to be described as normal script. All printed materials are to be gradually converted to this normal script. As soon as is feasible in terms of textbooks, only the normal script will be taught in village and state schools.<br />The use of the Schwabach Jew letters by officials will in future cease; appointment certifications for functionaries, street signs, and so forth will in future be produced only in normal script.<br />On behalf of the Führer, Herr Reichsleiter Amann will in future convert those newspapers and periodicals that already have foreign distribution, or whose foreign distribution is desired, to normal script. |archive-date=11 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201111185607/http://ligaturix.de/bormann.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> It is believed that this script was banned during the Nazi régime,{{who|date=November 2020}} as they realized that Fraktur would inhibit communication in the territories occupied during [[World War II]].{{sfn|Kapr|1993|p=81}}

The Fraktur script however remains present in everyday life in pub signs, beer brands and other forms of advertisement, where it is used to convey a certain rusticality and antiquity.

A proper use of the [[long s]] ({{lang|de|langes s}}), [[long s|ſ]], is essential for writing German text in [[Fraktur]] typefaces. Many [[Antiqua (typeface class)|Antiqua]] typefaces also include the long s. A specific set of rules applies for the use of long s in German text, but nowadays it is rarely used in Antiqua typesetting. Any lower case "s" at the beginning of a syllable would be a long s, as opposed to a terminal s or short s (the more common variation of the letter s), which marks the end of a syllable; for example, in differentiating between the words {{lang|de|Wachſtube}} (guard-house) and {{lang|de|Wachstube}} (tube of polish/wax). One can easily decide which "s" to use by appropriate hyphenation, ({{lang|de|Wach-ſtube}} vs. {{lang|de|Wachs-tube}}). The long s only appears in [[lower case]].