Editing Disability (section)

==== Intersections ====
{{expand section|date=February 2018}}
[[File:Disabled BIPOC in front of pride flag.jpg|alt=Pictured are three Black and disabled people. On the left is a non-binary person holding a cane, in the middle there is a woman sitting in a power wheelchair, and on the right is a woman sitting in a chair. They are all partially smiling at the camera while a rainbow pride flag drapes on the wall behind them.|thumb|Three Black and disabled people in front of a [[pride flag]]]]
The experiences that disabled people have to navigate social institutions vary greatly as a function of what other social categories they may belong to. For example, a disabled man and a disabled woman experience disability differently.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Begum |first1=Nasa |title=Disabled Women and the Feminist Agenda |journal=Feminist Review |date=March 1992 |volume=40 |issue=1 |pages=70–84 |doi=10.1057/fr.1992.6 |s2cid=143930177 }}</ref> This speaks to the concept of [[intersectionality]], which explains that different aspects of a person's identity (such as their gender, race, sexuality, religion, or social class) intersect and create unique experiences of oppression and privilege.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Pettinicchio |first1=David |last2=Maroto |first2=Michelle |chapter=Employment Outcomes Among Men and Women with Disabilities: How the Intersection of Gender and Disability Status Shapes Labor Market Inequality |date=January 1, 2017 |editor-last=Altman |editor-first=Barbara M. |title=Factors in Studying Employment for Persons with Disability |pages=3–33 |series=Research in Social Science and Disability Vol. 10 |publisher=Emerald Publishing Limited |doi=10.1108/s1479-354720170000010003 |isbn=978-1-78714-606-8 |s2cid=158400534|url=https://zenodo.org/record/5816165 }}</ref> The United Nations [[Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities]] differentiates between a few kinds of disability intersections, such as the age-disability, race-disability, and gender-disability intersection.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Lawson |first1=Anna |title=European Union Non-Discrimination Law and Intersectionality: Investigating the Triangle of Racial, Gender and Disability Discrimination |date=2016 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-13921-8}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD) {{!}} United Nations Enable |url=https://www.un.org/development/desa/disabilities/convention-on-the-rights-of-Persons-with-disabilities.html |access-date=February 21, 2024 |website=www.un.org}}</ref> However, many more intersections exist. Disability is defined differently by each person; it may be visible or invisible, and multiple intersections often arise from overlapping identity categories.

===== Race =====
Incidence of disability is reported to be greater among several minority communities across the globe, according to a systematic analysis of the [[Global Burden of Disease Study]].<ref>{{cite journal |author=Theo Vos | collaboration=GBD 2016 Disease and Injury Incidence and Prevalence Collaborators <!-- There's 700 collaborators, it's best to use a group name. --> | title=Global, regional, and national incidence, prevalence, and years lived with disability for 328 diseases and injuries for 195 countries, 1990–2016: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2016 | journal=The Lancet | volume=390 | issue=10100 <!-- 390(10100) is the correct volume and issue. --> | year=2017 | issn=0140-6736 | doi=10.1016/s0140-6736(17)32154-2 | doi-access=free | pages=1211–1259| pmid=28919117 | pmc=5605509 }}</ref> Disabled people who are also racial [[minority group|minorities]] generally have less access to support and are more vulnerable to [[Police brutality|violent discrimination.]]<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Frederick|first1=Angela |last2=Shifrer|first2=Dara|date=July 11, 2018|title=Race and Disability: From Analogy to Intersectionality |journal=Sociology of Race and Ethnicity|volume=5|issue=2|pages=200–214|doi=10.1177/2332649218783480 |s2cid=150155324|issn=2332-6492|doi-access=free}}</ref> A study in the journal ''Child Development'' indicated that minority disabled children are more likely to receive punitive discipline in low and middle income countries.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Hendricks|first1=Charlene|last2=Lansford|first2=Jennifer E. |last3=Deater-Deckard|first3=Kirby|last4=Bornstein|first4=Marc H. |date=July 29, 2013|title=Associations Between Child Disabilities and Caregiver Discipline and Violence in Low- and Middle-Income Countries |journal=Child Development|volume=85|issue=2|pages=513–531|doi=10.1111/cdev.12132 |pmid=23895329 |pmc=4151611|issn=0009-3920}}</ref> Due to the fact that children with disabilities are mistreated more often than those without disability; racialized children in this category are at an even higher risk.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Sullivan |first1=PM |last2=Knutson |first2=JF |title=Maltreatment and disabilities: a population-based epidemiological study. |journal=Child Abuse & Neglect |date=October 2000 |volume=24 |issue=10 |pages=1257–1273 |doi=10.1016/s0145-2134(00)00190-3 |pmid=11075694|s2cid=20946280 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Randall |first1=W |last2=Sobsey |first2=D |last3=Parrila |first3=R |year=2001 |title=Ethnicity, disability, and risk for abuse |journal=Developmental Disabilities Bulletin |volume=29 |issue=1 |pages=60–80}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Horner-Johnson |first1=W |last2=Drum |first2=CE |title=Prevalence of maltreatment of people with intellectual disabilities: a review of recently published research. |journal=Mental Retardation and Developmental Disabilities Research Reviews |date=2006 |volume=12 |issue=1 |pages=57–69 |doi=10.1002/mrdd.20097 |pmid=16435331|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Brown |first1=J |last2=Cohen |first2=P |last3=Johnson |first3=JG |last4=Salzinger |first4=S |title=A longitudinal analysis of risk factors for child maltreatment: findings of a 17-year prospective study of officially recorded and self-reported child abuse and neglect. |journal=Child Abuse & Neglect |date=November 1998 |volume=22 |issue=11 |pages=1065–78 |doi=10.1016/s0145-2134(98)00087-8 |pmid=9827312|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Perkins |first1=S |title=An Ecological Perspective on the Comorbidity of Childhood Violence Exposure and Disabilities: Focus on the Ecology of the School. |journal=Psychology of Violence |date=January 2012 |volume=2 |issue=1 |pages=75–89 |doi=10.1037/a0026137 |pmid=34621555 |pmc=8494429}}</ref> With respect to [[disability in the United States]], Camille A. Nelson, writing for the ''[[Berkeley Journal of Criminal Law]]'', notes the dual discrimination that racial minorities with disabilities experience from the criminal justice system, expressing that for "people who are negatively racialized, that is people who are perceived as being non-white, and for whom mental illness is either known or assumed, interaction with police is precarious and potentially dangerous."<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Nelson|first1=Camille|date=Spring 2010 |title=Racializing Disability, Disabling Race: Policing Race and Mental Status |journal=Berkley Journal of Criminal Law|volume=15|issue=1 |url=http://www.bjcl.org/articles/15_1%20Nelson%20(1-64).pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200204124256/http://www.bjcl.org/articles/15_1%20Nelson%20(1-64).pdf |archive-date=February 4, 2020|access-date=May 3, 2016}}</ref>

===== Gender =====
The marginalization of people with disabilities can leave persons with disabilities unable to actualize what society expects of gendered existence. This lack of recognition for their gender identity can leave persons with disabilities with feelings of inadequacy. Thomas J. Gerschick of [[Illinois State University]] describes why this denial of gendered identity occurs:<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Gerschick|first1=Thomas|title=Towards a Theory of Disability and Gender |journal=Signs|date=Summer 2000|volume=25|issue=4|pages=1263–68|jstor=3175525|doi=10.1086/495558|s2cid=144519468}}</ref>
{{Blockquote|text=Bodies operate socially as canvases on which gender is displayed and kinesthetically as the mechanisms by which it is physically enacted. Thus, the bodies of people with disabilities make them vulnerable to being denied recognition as women and men.}}
To the extent that women and men with disabilities are gendered, the interactions of these two identities lead to different experiences. Women with disabilities face a sort of "double [[social stigma|stigmatization]]" in which their membership to both of these marginalized categories simultaneously exacerbates the negative stereotypes associated with each as they are ascribed to them. However, according to the framework of intersectionality, gender and disability intersect to create a unique experience that is not simply the coincidence of being a woman and having a disability separately, but the unique experience of being a woman with a disability. It follows that the more marginalized groups one belongs to, their experience of privilege or oppression changes: in short, a black woman and a white woman will experience disability differently.<ref>{{cite book |chapter="When Black Women Start Going on Prozac ..." The Politics of Race, Gender, and Emotional Distress in Meri Nana-Ama Danquah's Willow Weep for Me |date=May 2, 2013 |editor=Lennard J. Davis |title=The Disability Studies Reader |pages=415–435 |publisher=Routledge |doi=10.4324/9780203077887-41 |isbn=978-0-203-07788-7}}</ref>

According to The UN Woman Watch, "Persistence of certain cultural, legal and institutional barriers makes women and girls with disabilities the victims of two-fold discrimination: as women and as persons with disabilities."<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.un.org/womenwatch/enable/|title= Feature on Women with Disabilities|last=WomenWatch |website=UN |access-date=October 24, 2017|archive-date=September 28, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170928042447/http://www.un.org/womenwatch/enable/|url-status=live}}</ref> As Rosemarie Garland-Thomson puts it, "Women with disabilities, even more intensely than women in general, have been cast in the collective cultural imagination as inferior, lacking, excessive, incapable, unfit, and useless."<ref>{{cite journal|date=Winter 2005|title=Feminist Disability Studies|doi=10.1086/423352|journal=Signs|volume=30|issue=2|pages=1557–87|last1=Garland-Thomson|first1=Rosemarie|s2cid=144603782}}</ref>

===== Socio-economic background =====
Similar to the intersections of race and disability or gender and disability, a person's socio-economic background will also change their experience of disability. A disabled person with a low socio-economic status will experience the world differently, with more obstacles and fewer opportunities, than a disabled person with a high socio-economic status.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ong-Dean |first=Colin |title=Distinguishing Disability |date=2009 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |doi=10.7208/chicago/9780226630021.001.0001 |isbn=978-0-226-63001-4}}</ref><ref name="Lustig 2007 194–202">{{cite journal |last1=Lustig |first1=Daniel C. |last2=Strauser |first2=David R. |title=Causal Relationships Between Poverty and Disability |journal=Rehabilitation Counseling Bulletin |date=July 2007 |volume=50 |issue=4 |pages=194–202 |doi=10.1177/00343552070500040101 |s2cid=144496704 }}</ref>

A good example of the [[Socioeconomic status and mental health|intersection]] between disability and [[Socioeconomic status|socio-economic status]] is access to education, as we know that there are direct links between poverty and disability - <ref name="Lustig 2007 194–202" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Neufeldt |first=Aldred H. |date=1995 |title=Empirical Dimensions of Discrimination against Disabled People |journal=Health and Human Rights |volume=1 |issue=2 |pages=174–189 |doi=10.2307/4065213 |jstor=4065213 |pmid=10395720 |issn=1079-0969}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Grech |first1=Shaun |title=Poverty and disability |journal=Disability & Society |date=December 2011 |volume=26 |issue=7 |pages=888–891 |doi=10.1080/09687599.2011.618747 |s2cid=144977018 }}</ref> often working in a vicious cycle.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Jenkins |first=Richard |date=1991 |title=Disability and Social Stratification |journal=The British Journal of Sociology |volume=42 |issue=4 |pages=557–580 |doi=10.2307/591447 |jstor=591447 |pmid=1838293}}</ref> The costs of special education and caring for a disabled child are higher than for a child with no acknowledged disability, which poses an immense barrier in accessing appropriate education.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Lukemeyer |first1=Anna |last2=Meyers |first2=Marcia K. |last3=Smeeding |first3=Timothy |date=2000 |title=Expensive Children in Poor Families: Out-of-Pocket Expenditures for the Care of Disabled and Chronically Ill Children in Welfare Families |journal=Journal of Marriage and Family |volume=62 |issue=2 |pages=399–415 |doi=10.1111/j.1741-3737.2000.00399.x |issn=0022-2445}}</ref> The inaccessibility of appropriate education (at any stage), can lead to difficulties in finding employment, which often results in the vicious cycle of being 'bound' by one's experience as a poor and disabled person to remain in the same social structure and experience socio-economic exclusion.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Barnes |first1=Colin |last2=Sheldon |first2=Alison |title=Disability, politics and poverty in a majority world context |journal=Disability & Society |date=December 2010 |volume=25 |issue=7 |pages=771–782 |doi=10.1080/09687599.2010.520889 |s2cid=144808946 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Soldatic |first1=Karen |last2=Pini |first2=Barbara |title=The three Ds of welfare reform: disability, disgust and deservingness |journal=Australian Journal of Human Rights |date=November 2009 |volume=15 |issue=1 |pages=77–95 |doi=10.1080/1323238X.2009.11910862 |s2cid=148904296 }}</ref> In short, this vicious cycle exacerbates the lack of [[Economic capital|economic]], [[Social capital|social]], and [[cultural capital]] for disabled people with a low socio-economic background. On the other hand, a disabled person of a high socio-economic status, may have an easier time accessing appropriate (special) education or treatment - for example by having access to better aids, resources, or programmes that can help them succeed.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Auerbach |first1=Susan |title='Why Do They Give the Good Classes to Some and Not to Others?' Latino Parent Narratives of Struggle in a College Access Program |journal=Teachers College Record: The Voice of Scholarship in Education |date=October 2002 |volume=104 |issue=7 |pages=1369–1392 |doi=10.1111/1467-9620.00207 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Perna |first1=Laura W |last2=Titus |first2=Marvin A |title=The Relationship between Parental Involvement as Social Capital and College Enrollment: An Examination of Racial/Ethnic Group Differences |journal=The Journal of Higher Education |date=2005 |volume=76 |issue=5 |pages=485–518 |id={{Project MUSE|185966}} |doi=10.1353/jhe.2005.0036 |s2cid=32290790 }}</ref>