Editing Industrial Revolution (section)

===Europe===
The Industrial Revolution in continental Europe started in Belgium and France, then spread to the German states by the middle of the 19th century. In many industries, this involved the application of technology developed in Britain. Typically, the technology was purchased from Britain, or British engineers and entrepreneurs moved abroad in search of new opportunities. By 1809, part of the [[Ruhr]] in Westphalia was called 'Miniature England' because of its similarities to industrial areas of Britain. Most European governments provided state funding to the new industries. In some cases, such as [[Iron and steel industry|iron]], the different availability of resources locally meant only some aspects of the British technology were adopted.<ref>Alan S. Milward and S. B. Saul, ''The Economic Development of Continental Europe 1780–1870'' (Harvard UP, 1973).</ref><ref>Alan Milward and Samuel Berrick Saul, ''The Development of the Economies of Continental Europe 1850–1914'' (Harvard UP, 1977).</ref>

====Belgium====
{{See also|History of Belgium#Industrial Revolution|History of Wallonia#Industry|Sillon industriel}}
[[File:La coulée à Ougrée.jpg|thumb|Painting of steel production in [[Ougrée]], Belgium, by [[Constantin Meunier]] (1885)]]
[[History of Belgium|Belgium]] was the second country in which the Industrial Revolution took place and the first in continental Europe: [[Wallonia]] (French-speaking southern Belgium) took the lead. Starting in the 1820s, and especially after Belgium became independent in 1830, factories comprising coke blast furnaces as well as puddling and rolling mills were built in the coal mining areas around [[Liège]] and [[Charleroi]]. The leader was [[John Cockerill (industrialist)|John Cockerill]], a transplanted Englishman. His factories at [[Seraing]] integrated all stages of production, from engineering to the supply of raw materials, as early as 1825.<ref name="publishing"/><ref>Milward and Saul, ''Economic Development of Continental Europe 1780–1870'' pp 292–296, 437–453.</ref>

Wallonia exemplified the radical evolution of industrial expansion, it was also the birthplace of a strong socialist party and trade unions. Thanks to coal,<ref name="language"/> the region became the second industrial power after Britain. With its ''[[Sillon industriel]]'', "Especially in the [[Haine]], [[Sambre]] and [[Meuse]] valleys...there was a huge industrial development based on coal-mining and iron-making...".<ref name="ugent"/> Philippe Raxhon wrote about the period after 1830: "It was not propaganda but a reality the Walloon regions were becoming the second industrial power...after Britain."<ref name="philippe"/> "The sole industrial centre outside the collieries and blast furnaces of Walloon was the old cloth-making town of [[Ghent]]."<ref name="erih"/><ref name="linguistiques"/> Many 19th-century coal mines in Wallonia are now protected as [[World Heritage Site]]s.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1344 |title= Major Mining Sites of Wallonia |website= UNESCO WOrld Heritage List |publisher= UNESCO |access-date= 18 March 2021 |archive-date= 3 July 2012 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120703213428/http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1344 |url-status= live }}</ref> Even though Belgium was the second industrial country after Britain, the effect of the Industrial Revolution was very different. In 'Breaking stereotypes', Muriel Neven and Isabelle Devious say:
<blockquote>The Industrial Revolution changed a mainly rural society into an urban one, but with a strong contrast between northern and southern Belgium. During the Middle Ages and the early modern period, Flanders was characterised by the presence of large urban centres [...] at the beginning of the nineteenth century this region (Flanders), with an urbanisation degree of more than 30 percent, remained one of the most urbanised in the world. By comparison, this proportion reached only 17 percent in Wallonia, barely 10 percent in most West European countries, 16 percent in France, and 25 percent in Britain. 19th-century industrialisation did not affect the traditional urban infrastructure, except in Ghent... Also, in Wallonia, the traditional urban network was largely unaffected by the industrialisation process, even though the proportion of city-dwellers rose from 17 to 45 percent between 1831 and 1910. Especially in the [[Haine]], [[Sambre]] and [[Meuse]] valleys...where there was a huge industrial development based on coal-mining and iron-making, urbanisation was fast. During these eighty years, the number of municipalities with more than 5,000 inhabitants increased from only 21 to more than one hundred, concentrating nearly half of the Walloon population in this region. Nevertheless, industrialisation remained quite traditional in the sense that it did not lead to the growth of modern and large urban centres, but to a conurbation of industrial villages and towns developed around a coal mine or a factory. Communication routes between these small centres only became populated later and created a much less dense urban morphology than, for instance, the area around Liège where the old town was there to direct migratory flows.<ref name="stereotypes"/></blockquote>

====France====
{{main|Economic history of France}}
[[File:Interior of exhibition building, Exposition Universal, Paris, France.jpg|thumb|Interior view of the Gallery of Machines at the [[Exposition Universelle (1889)|1889 Paris Exposition]]]]
The Industrial Revolution in France did not correspond to the main model followed by other countries. Most [[French historians]] argue France did not go through a clear ''take-off''.<ref name="marczewski" /> Instead, economic growth and industrialisation was slow and steady through the 18th and 19th centuries. However, some stages were identified by Maurice Lévy-Leboyer:
* French Revolution and Napoleonic Wars (1789–1815)
* industrialisation, along with Britain (1815–1860)
* economic slowdown (1860–1905)
* renewal of growth after 1905

====Germany====
{{main|Economic history of Germany}}
Germany's political disunity{{mdash}}with three dozen states{{mdash}}and a pervasive conservatism made it difficult to build railways in the 1830s. However, by the 1840s, trunk lines linked the major cities; each German state was responsible for the lines within its borders. Lacking a technological base at first, the Germans imported their engineering and hardware from Britain, but quickly learned the skills needed to operate and expand the railways. In many cities, the new railway shops were the centres of technological awareness and training, so that by 1850, Germany was self-sufficient in meeting the demands of railway construction, and the railways were a major impetus for the growth of the new steel industry. Observers found that even as late as 1890, their engineering was inferior to Britain's. However, German unification in 1871 stimulated consolidation, nationalisation into state-owned companies, and further rapid growth. Unlike in France, the goal was the support of industrialisation, and so heavy lines crisscrossed the Ruhr and other industrial districts and provided good connections to the major ports of Hamburg and Bremen. By 1880, Germany had 9,400 locomotives pulling 43,000 passengers and 30,000 tons of freight, and pulled ahead of France.<ref>Allan Mitchell, ''Great Train Race: Railways and the Franco-German Rivalry, 1815–1914'' (2000)</ref>

Based on its leadership in chemical research in universities and industrial laboratories, Germany became dominant in the world's chemical industry in the late 19th century.<ref name=Haber>{{harvnb|Haber|1958}}</ref>

====Sweden====
{{Main|Economic history of Sweden}}
Between 1790 and 1815, Sweden experienced two parallel economic movements: an ''agricultural revolution'' with larger agricultural estates, new crops, and farming tools and commercialisation of farming, and a ''proto industrialisation'', with small industries being established in the countryside and workers switching between agriculture in summer and industrial production in winter. This led to economic growth benefiting large sections of the population and leading up to a consumption revolution starting in the 1820s. Between 1815 and 1850, the protoindustries developed into more specialised and larger industries. This period witnessed regional specialisation with mining in [[Bergslagen]], textile mills in Sjuhäradsbygden, and forestry in [[Norrland]]. Important institutional changes took place, such as free and mandatory schooling introduced in 1842 (first time in the world), the abolition of the national monopoly on trade in handicrafts in 1846, and a stock company law in 1848.<ref>{{cite journal | url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/03585522.1982.10407973 | doi=10.1080/03585522.1982.10407973 | title=Proto-industrialisation and factories: Textiles in Sweden in the mid-nineteenth century | date=1982 | last1=Schön | first1=Lennart | journal=Scandinavian Economic History Review | volume=30 | pages=57–71 | access-date=23 August 2020 | archive-date=14 April 2021 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414185210/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/03585522.1982.10407973 | url-status=live }}</ref>

From 1850 to 1890, there was a rapid expansion in exports, dominated by crops, wood, and steel. Sweden abolished most tariffs and other barriers to free trade in the 1850s and joined the gold standard in 1873. Large infrastructural investments were made, mainly in the expanding railroad network, which was financed by the government and private enterprises.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Bengtsson|first1=Erik|last2=Missiaia|first2=Anna|last3=Olsson|first3=Mats|last4=Svensson|first4=Patrick|title=Wealth inequality in Sweden, 1750–1900†|journal=The Economic History Review|volume=71|issue=3|language=en|pages=772–794|doi=10.1111/ehr.12576|issn=1468-0289|year=2018|s2cid=154088734|doi-access=free}}</ref> From 1890 to 1930, new industries developed with their focus on the domestic market: mechanical engineering, power utilities, [[papermaking]] and textile.

====Austria-Hungary====
{{Main|Economy of Austria-Hungary}}
The [[Habsburg monarchy|Habsburg]] realms, which became [[Austria-Hungary]] in 1867, had a population of 23 million in 1800, growing to 36 million by 1870. Between 1818 and 1870, industrial growth averaged 3% annually, though development varied significantly across regions. A major boost to industrialisation came with the construction of the railway network between 1850 and 1873, which transformed transport by making it faster, more reliable and affordable. Proto-industrialisation had already begun by 1750 in Alpine and Bohemian regions— what is now the [[Czech Republic]]—which later emerged as the industrial hub of the empire. The textile industry led this transformation, adopting mechanisation, steam engines, and the factory system. The first mechanical loom in the [[Czech lands]] was introduced in Varnsdorf in 1801<ref>{{cite web |title=On the Industrial History of the Czech Republic |url=https://www.erih.net/how-it-started/industrial-history-of-european-countries/czech-republic |website=European Route of Industrial Heritage |publisher=Council of Europe |access-date=2 June 2021 |archive-date=28 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210428125836/https://www.erih.net/how-it-started/industrial-history-of-european-countries/czech-republic |url-status=live }}</ref> followed shortly by the arrival of steam engines in [[Bohemia]] and [[Moravia]]. Textile production flourished in industrial centers such as [[Prague]]<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Carter |first1=F. W. |title=The Industrial Development of Prague 1800–1850 |journal=The Slavonic and East European Review |year=1973 |volume=51 |issue=123 |pages=243–275 |jstor=4206709}}</ref> and Brno—the latter earning the nickname "Moravian Manchester."<ref>{{cite web |title=On the Industrial History of the Czech Republic |url=https://www.erih.net/how-it-started/industrial-history-of-european-countries/czech-republic |website=European Route of Industrial Heritage |access-date=2 June 2021 |archive-date=28 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210428125836/https://www.erih.net/how-it-started/industrial-history-of-european-countries/czech-republic |url-status=live }}</ref> The Czech lands became an industrial heartland due to rich natural resources, skilled workforce, and early adoption of technology. The iron industry also expanded in the Alpine regions after 1750. Hungary, by contrast, remained predominantly rural and under-industrialised until after 1870.<ref>Martin Moll, "Austria-Hungary" in Christine Rider, ed., ''Encyclopedia of the Age of the Industrial Revolution 1700–1920'' (2007) pp. 24–27.</ref> However, reformers like Count [[István Széchenyi]] played a crucial role in laying the groundwork for future development. Often called "the greatest Hungarian," Széchenyi advocated for economic modernisation, infrastructure development, and industrial education. His initiatives included the promotion of river regulation, bridge construction (notably the [[Széchenyi Chain Bridge|Chain Bridge in Budapest]]), and the founding of the [[Hungarian Academy of Sciences]]—all aimed at fostering a market-oriented economy.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Lendvai |first=Paul |url=https://www.degruyterbrill.com/document/doi/10.1515/9781400851522/html |title=The Hungarians: A Thousand Years of Victory in Defeat |date=2004 |publisher=Princeton |year=2004 |isbn=9781400851522 |pages=191-205 |language=english}}</ref> In 1791, Prague hosted the first [[World's fair|World's Fair]], in [[Clementinum]] showcasing the region’s growing industrial sophistication. An earlier industrial exhibition was held in conjunction with the coronation of [[Leopold II, Holy Roman Emperor|Leopold II]] as [[King of Bohemia]], celebrating advanced manufacturing techniques in the Czech lands.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.arts.gla.ac.uk/Slavonic/Czech_Hist8.html|title=The era of enlightenment|access-date=11 March 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120316114245/http://www.arts.gla.ac.uk/Slavonic/Czech_Hist8.html|archive-date=16 March 2012}}</ref> 

From 1870 to 1913, technological innovation drove industrialisation and urbanisation across the empire. Gross national product (GNP) per capita grew at an average annual rate of 1.8%—surpassing Britain (1%), France (1.1%), and Germany (1.5%).<ref>David Good, ''The Economic Rise of the Habsburg Empire''</ref> Nevertheless, Austria-Hungary as a whole continued to lag behind more industrialised powers like Britain and Germany, largely due to its later start in the modernisation process.<ref>Millward and Saul, ''The Development of the Economies of Continental Europe 1850–1914'' pp. 271–331.</ref>