Editing Abalone (section)

==Human use==
Abalone have been harvested as a source of food and esthetics since prehistory. Abalone shells and associated materials, like their claw-like [[pearls]] and [[mother of pearl|nacre]], have been used as jewelry and for buttons, buckles, and inlay.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Haliotis Linnaeus, 1758|url=https://www.gbif.org/species/113517568|access-date=27 May 2021|website=www.gbif.org|language=en}}</ref><ref name="Colliers">{{harvnb|Loosanoff|1997|p=6}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=What are abalone pearls?|date=22 August 2019 |url=https://pearlwise.pro/what-are-abalone-pearls}}</ref>  These shells have been found in archaeological sites around the world, ranging from 100,000-year-old deposits at Blombos Cave in South Africa to historic Chinese abalone middens on California's Northern Channel Islands.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Henshilwood |display-authors=et al.|title=A 100,000-Year-Old Ochre-Processing Workshop at [[Blombos Cave]], South Africa|journal=Science|date=October 2011|volume=334|issue=6053|pages=219–222|doi=10.1126/science.1211535|pmid=21998386|bibcode=2011Sci...334..219H|s2cid=40455940}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Braje, Erlandson & Rick|title=An Historic Chinese Abalone Fishery on California's Northern Channel Islands|journal=Historical Archaeology|date=2007|volume=41|issue=4|pages=117–128|doi=10.1007/BF03377298|s2cid=164710632}}</ref>  For at least 12,000 years, abalone were harvested to such an extent around the [[Channel Islands (California)|Channel Islands]] that shells in the area decreased in size four thousand years ago.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Haliotis Linnaeus, 1758|url=https://www.gbif.org/species/113517568|access-date=27 May 2021|website=www.gbif.org|language=en}}</ref>

===Farming===
[[Image:Abalone-farm1web.jpg|thumb|right|An abalone farm]]
{{See also|Aquaculture#Molluscs|label 1=Aquaculture|Mariculture|}}
[[File:Alaminosjf384.JPG|thumb|right|125px|Abalone hatchery]]
[[File:Alaminosjf385.JPG|thumb|right|125px|Part of the [[:File:Alaminosjf403.JPG|Multi-Species Fish and Invertebrate Breeding and Hatchery]], (Oceanographic Marine Laboratory, Lucap, [[Alaminos, Pangasinan]], [[Philippines]], 2011)]]
Farming of abalone began in the late 1950s and early 1960s in Japan and China.<ref>{{harvnb|Anon|2012}}</ref> Since the mid-1990s, there have been many increasingly successful endeavors to commercially farm abalone for the purpose of consumption.<ref>{{harvnb|Taggart|2002}}</ref> Overfishing and poaching have reduced wild populations to such an extent that farmed abalone now supplies most of the abalone meat consumed. The principal abalone farming regions are China, Taiwan,<ref>{{harvnb|Westaway|Norriss|1997|p=1}}</ref> Japan, and Korea. Abalone is also farmed in Australia, Canada, Chile, France,<ref>{{harvnb|Simons|2010}}</ref> [[Iceland]], Ireland, Mexico, [[Namibia]], New Zealand, South Africa, Spain,<ref name="ElPais">{{cite web
 | url =http://politica.elpais.com/politica/2016/07/27/actualidad/1469637381_879215.html
 | title =El marisco más exclusivo del mundo se cría en Galicia
 | date =28 July 2016
| website =El Pais
 | publisher =PRISA
 | access-date =28 July 2016
}}</ref> Thailand, and the United States.<ref>{{harvnb|Freeman|2001|p=1}}</ref>

After trials in 2012,<ref name="oceangrown.com.au-2013">{{cite web
 |url          = http://www.oceangrown.com.au/wp-content/uploads/2013/10/Ocean-Grown-Information-Memorandum-Approved-Screen.pdf
 |title        = Information Memorandum, 2013 Ranching of Greenlip Abalone, Flinders Bay – Western Australia
 |website      = Ocean Grown Abalone
 |access-date  = 23 April 2016
|archive-url  = https://web.archive.org/web/20161010215256/http://www.oceangrown.com.au/wp-content/uploads/2013/10/Ocean-Grown-Information-Memorandum-Approved-Screen.pdf
 |archive-date = 10 October 2016
|url-status     = dead
 |df           = dmy-all
}}</ref> a commercial "sea ranch" was set up in [[Flinders Bay]], Western Australia to raise abalone. The ranch is based on an artificial reef made up of 5,000 separate concrete abalone habitat units, which can host 400 abalone each. The reef is seeded with young abalone from an onshore hatchery.

The abalone feed on seaweed that grows naturally on the habitats; the ecosystem enrichment of the bay also results in growing numbers of [[dhufish]], [[pink snapper]], [[wrasse]], and [[Samson fish]] among other species.<ref name="abc.net.au-2014-08-15">{{cite web
 | url =http://www.abc.net.au/news/2014-08-15/nrn-abalone-wild-farm/5673010
 | title =First wild abalone farm in Australia built on artificial reef 
 | last =Fitzgerald
 | first =Bridget
 | date =28 August 2014
| website =Australian Broadcasting Corporation Rural
 | publisher =Australian Broadcasting Corporation
 | access-date =23 April 2016}}</ref><ref name="abc.net.au-2016-04-23">{{cite web
 | url =http://www.abc.net.au/news/2016-04-23/world-first-abalone-sea-ranch-creating-opportunity/7345448
 | title =Abalone grown in world-first sea ranch in WA 'as good as wild catch'
 | last =Murphy
 | first =Sean
 | date =23 April 2016
| website =Australian Broadcasting Corporation News
 | publisher =Australian Broadcasting Corporation
 | access-date =23 April 2016}}</ref>

===Consumption===
Abalone have long been a valuable food source for humans in every area of the world where a species is abundant. The meat of this mollusc is considered a [[delicacy]] in certain parts of Latin America (particularly Chile), France, New Zealand, East Asia and Southeast Asia. In the Greater China region and among Overseas Chinese communities, abalone is commonly known as ''bao yu'', and sometimes forms part of a Chinese banquet. In the same way as [[shark fin soup]] or [[bird's nest soup]], abalone is considered a [[luxury item]], and is traditionally reserved for celebrations.

As abalone became more popular and less common, the prices adjusted accordingly. In the 1920s, a restaurant-served portion of abalone, about 4 ounces, would cost (in inflation adjusted dollars) about US$7; by 2004, the price had risen to US$75.<ref>{{harvnb|Jones|2008|p=65}}</ref> In the United States, prior to this time, abalone was predominantly eaten, gathered, and prepared by Chinese immigrants.<ref>{{harvnb|Jones|2008|p=66}}</ref> Before that, abalone were collected to be eaten, and used for other purposes by Native American tribes.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Seaweed, Salmon, and Manzanita Cider: A California Indian Feast|last=Dubin|first=Margaret|publisher=Heyday Books|year=2008|editor-last=Tolley|editor-first=Sara-Larus}}</ref> By 1900, laws were passed in California to outlaw the taking of abalone above the [[intertidal zone]]. This forced the Chinese out of the market and the Japanese perfected diving, with or without gear, to enter the market. Abalone started to become popular in the US after the [[Panama–Pacific International Exposition]] in 1915, which exhibited 365 varieties of fish with cooking demonstrations, and a 1,300-seat dining hall.<ref>{{harvnb|Jones|2008|p=70}}</ref>

In Japan, live and raw abalone are used in awabi sushi, or served steamed, salted, boiled, chopped, or simmered in [[soy sauce]]. Salted, fermented abalone entrails are the main component of ''tottsuru'', a local dish from Honshū. ''Tottsuru'' is mainly enjoyed with sake.<ref>{{harvnb|Akimichi|1999}}</ref>

In South Korea, abalone is called ''Jeonbok'' (/juhn-bok/) and used in various recipes. ''Jeonbok'' porridge and pan-fried abalone steak with butter are popular but also commonly used in soups or ramyeon.

In California, abalone meat can be found on pizza, sautéed with caramelized mango, or in steak form dusted with cracker meal and flour.<ref>{{harvnb|Gayot|2010}}</ref>

===Sport harvesting===

====Australia====
[[Tasmania]] supplies about 25% of the yearly world abalone harvest.<ref>{{harvnb|Anon|2014}}</ref> Around 12,500 Tasmanians recreationally fish for [[Haliotis rubra|blacklip]] and [[Haliotis laevigata|greenlip]] abalone. For blacklip abalone, the size limit varies between {{convert|138|mm|in|abbr=on}} for the southern end of the state and {{convert|127|mm|in|abbr=on}} for the northern end of the state.<ref>{{harvnb|Anon|2014a}}</ref> Greenlip abalone have a minimum size of {{convert|145|mm|in|abbr=on}}, except for an area around [[Perkins Bay]] in the north of the state where the minimum size is {{convert|132|mm|in}}. With a recreational abalone licence, the bag limit is 10 per day, with a total possession limit of 20. [[Scuba diving]] for abalone is allowed, and has a rich history in Australia. (Scuba diving for abalone in the states of [[New South Wales]] and [[Western Australia]] is illegal; a [[free-diving]] catch limit of two is allowed).<ref>{{cite web|title=FRDC blacklip abalone|url=http://fish.gov.au/reports/molluscs/abalones/Pages/blacklip_abalone.aspx|access-date=5 December 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160909021551/http://www.fish.gov.au/reports/molluscs/abalones/Pages/blacklip_abalone.aspx|archive-date=9 September 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=FRDC greenlip abalone|url=http://fish.gov.au/reports/molluscs/abalones/Pages/greenlip_abalone.aspx|access-date=5 December 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160904073427/http://www.fish.gov.au/reports/molluscs/abalones/Pages/greenlip_abalone.aspx|archive-date=4 September 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref>

[[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]] has had an active abalone fishery since the late 1950s. The state is sectioned into three fishing zones, Eastern, Central and Western, with each fisher required a zone-allocated licence. Harvesting is performed by divers using surface-supplied air "hookah" systems operating from runabout-style, outboard-powered boats. While the diver seeks out colonies of abalone amongst the reef beds, the deckhand operates the boat, known as working "live" and stays above where the diver is working. Bags of abalone pried from the rocks are brought to the surface by the diver or by way of "shot line", where the deckhand drops a weighted rope for the catch bag to be connected then retrieved. Divers measure each abalone before removing from the reef and the deckhand remeasures each abalone and removes excess weed growth from the shell. Since 2002, the Victorian industry has seen a significant decline in catches, with the total allowable catch reduced from 1440 to 787 tonnes for the 2011/12 [[fishing year]], due to dwindling stocks and most notably the abalone virus [[ganglioneuritis]], which is fast-spreading and lethal to abalone stocks.

====United States====
[[File:Workers drying abalone shells in the sun in southern California (CHS-1399).jpg|thumb|Workers drying abalone shells in the sun in southern California, ''circa'' 1900]]
[[File:Japanese Abalone Diver.jpg|thumb|A young Japanese abalone diver in California in 1905]]
[[Image:White abalone Haliotis sorenseni.jpg|thumb|right|Two highly endangered white abalone: Prohibitions on commercial and recreational harvest of this species have been 
in place since 1996.]]
Sport harvesting of [[red abalone]] is permitted with a California fishing license and an abalone stamp card. In 2008, the abalone card also came with a set of 24 tags. This was reduced to 18 abalone per year in 2014, and as of 2017 the limit has been reduced to 12, only nine of which may be taken south of [[Mendocino County, California|Mendocino County]]. Legal-size abalone must be tagged immediately.<ref>{{harvnb|State of California|2008|loc=§29.16(a)}}</ref> Abalone may only be taken using breath-hold techniques or shorepicking; scuba diving for abalone is strictly prohibited.<ref name="ReferenceA">{{harvnb|State of California|2014|loc=§29.15(e)}}</ref> Taking of abalone is not permitted south of the mouth of [[San Francisco Bay]].<ref>{{harvnb|State of California|2014|loc=§29.15(a)}}</ref> A size minimum of {{convert|7|in|mm|abbr=on}} measured across the shell is in place.  A person may be in possession of only three abalone at any given time.<ref name=cal15c>{{harvnb|State of California|2014|loc=§29.15(c)}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|State of California|2014|loc=§29.15(d)}}</ref>

As of 2017, abalone season is May to October, excluding July. Transportation of abalone may only legally occur while the abalone is still attached in the shell. Sale of sport-obtained abalone is illegal, including the shell. Only red abalone may be taken, as [[Black abalone|black]], [[White abalone|white]], [[Haliotis corrugata|pink]], [[Haliotis walallensis|flat]], [[Green abalone|green]], and [[Northern abalone|pinto]] abalone are protected by law.<ref name=cal15c/> In 2018, the [[California Fish and Game Commission]] closed recreational abalone season due to dramatically declining populations. That year, they extended the moratorium to last through April 2021.<ref>{{cite news |last=Duggan |first=Tara |date=13 December 2018 |title=California abalone season sunk until 2021 to give stressed population time to rebuild |url=https://www.sfchronicle.com/food/article/No-abalone-diving-allowed-in-California-until-2021-13460882.php |work=San Francisco Chronicle |location=San Francisco, California |access-date=26 March 2018 }}</ref> Afterwards, they extended the ban for another 5 years until April 2026.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Blackwell |first1=Michelle |title=CDFW stalls abalone season for another five years |url=https://www.advocate-news.com/2021/04/01/cdfw-stalls-abalone-season-for-another-five-years/ |access-date=16 January 2025 |date=April 1, 2021}}</ref>

An abalone diver is normally equipped with a thick [[wetsuit]], including a hood, [[Wetsuit boots|bootee]]s, and gloves, and usually also a mask, [[Snorkeling|snorkel]], [[Diving weighting system#Weight belt|weight belt]], abalone iron, and abalone gauge. Alternatively, the rock picker can feel underneath rocks at low tides for abalone. Abalone are mostly taken in depths from a few inches up to {{convert|10|m|ft|abbr=on}}; less common are freedivers who can work deeper than {{convert|10|m|ft|abbr=on}}. Abalone are normally found on rocks near food sources such as [[kelp]]. An abalone iron is used to pry the abalone from the rock before it has time to fully clamp down. Divers dive from boats, kayaks, tube floats, or directly off the shore.<ref name="ReferenceA"/>

The largest abalone recorded in California is {{convert|12.34|in|cm|abbr=on}}, caught by John Pepper somewhere off the coast of [[San Mateo County, California|San Mateo County]] in September 1993.<ref name="Smookler2005p76">{{harvnb|Smookler|2005|p=76}}</ref>

The mollusc ''[[Concholepas concholepas]]'' is often sold in the United States under the name "Chilean abalone", though it is not an abalone, but a [[Muricidae|muricid]].

====New Zealand====
{{Main|Pāua}}

In New Zealand, abalone is called ''pāua'' ({{IPAc-en|'|p|aʊ|ə}}, from the [[Māori language]]). ''[[Haliotis iris]]'' (or blackfoot pāua) is the ubiquitous New Zealand pāua, the highly polished nacre of which is extremely popular as souvenirs with its striking blue, green, and purple iridescence. ''[[Haliotis australis]]'' and ''[[Haliotis virginea]]'' are also found in New Zealand waters, but are less popular than ''H. iris''. ''[[Haliotis pirimoana]]'' is a small species endemic to [[Manawatāwhi / Three Kings Islands|Manawatāwhi / the Three Kings Islands]] that superficially resembles ''H. virginea''.<ref name="Walton-2024">{{cite journal |doi=10.1080/13235818.2024.2390476 |title=''Haliotis virginea'' Gmelin, 1791 and a new abalone from Aotearoa New Zealand (Mollusca: Gastropoda: Haliotidae) |year=2024 |last1=Walton|first1=Kerry |last2=Marshall |first2=Bruce A. |last3=Rawlence|first3=Nicolas J. |last4=Spencer|first4=Hamish G. |journal=Molluscan Research |volume= 44|issue= 4|pages= 305–315|doi-access=free |bibcode=2024MollR..44..305W }}</ref><ref name="TheConversation1">{{Cite news|url=https://theconversation.com/the-paua-that-clings-to-the-sea-a-new-species-of-abalone-found-only-in-waters-off-a-remote-nz-island-chain-236568 |title='The pāua that clings to the sea': a new species of abalone found only in waters off a remote NZ island chain |last1=Walton|first1=Kerry |last2=Spencer|first2=Hamish |last3=Rawlence|first3=Nic |date=3 September 2024 |work=The Conversation|access-date=17 September 2024}}</ref>

Like all New Zealand shellfish, recreational harvesting of ''pāua'' does not require a permit provided catch limits, size restrictions, and seasonal and local restrictions set by the [[Ministry for Primary Industries (New Zealand)|Ministry for Primary Industries]] (MPI) are followed. The legal recreational daily limit is 10 per diver, with a minimum shell length of {{convert|125|mm|abbr=on}} for ''H. iris'' and {{convert|80|mm|abbr=on}} for ''H. australis''. In addition, no person may be in possession, even on land, of more than 20 pāua or more than {{convert|2.5|kg|abbr=on}} of pāua meat at any one time. Pāua can only be caught by free-diving; it is illegal to catch them using scuba gear.

An extensive global black market exists in collecting and exporting abalone meat. This can be a particularly awkward problem where the right to harvest pāua can be granted legally under [[Māori people|Māori]] customary rights. When such permits to harvest are abused, it is frequently difficult to police. The limit is strictly enforced by roving [[Ministry for Primary Industries (New Zealand)|Ministry for Primary Industries]] fishery officers with the backing of the New Zealand Police.  [[Poaching]] is a major industry in New Zealand with many thousands being taken illegally, often undersized. Convictions have resulted in seizure of diving gear, boats, and motor vehicles and fines and in rare cases, imprisonment.

====South Africa====
There are five species endemic to South Africa, namely ''[[Haliotis parva|H. parva]]'', ''[[Haliotis spadicea|H. spadicea]]'', ''[[Haliotis queketti|H. queketti]]'' and ''[[Haliotis speciosa|H. speciosa]]''.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-05-20 |title=South African abalone - SANBI |url=https://www.sanbi.org/animal-of-the-week/south-african-abalone/,%20https://www.sanbi.org/animal-of-the-week/south-african-abalone/ |access-date=2023-08-12 |language=en-US}}</ref>

The largest abalone in South Africa, ''[[Haliotis midae]]'', occurs along roughly two-thirds of the country's coastline. Abalone-diving has been a recreational activity for many years, but stocks are currently being threatened by [[Illegal fishing in Africa|illegal commercial harvesting]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Plagányi|first1=Éva|last2=Butterworth|first2=Doug|last3=Burgener|first3=Markus|date=1 January 2011|title=Illegal and unreported fishing on abalone—Quantifying the extent using a fully integrated assessment model|journal=Fisheries Research|volume=107|issue=1–3|pages=221–232|doi=10.1016/j.fishres.2010.11.005|bibcode=2011FishR.107..221P }}</ref> In South Africa, all persons harvesting this shellfish need permits that are issued annually, and no abalone may be harvested using scuba gear.

For the last few years, however, no permits have been issued for collecting abalone, but commercial harvesting still continues as does illegal collection by [[Criminal organization|syndicates]].<ref>{{harvnb|Anon|2007}}</ref>
In 2007, because of widespread [[poaching]] of abalone, the South African government listed abalone as an endangered species according to the [[CITES]] section III appendix, which requests member governments to monitor the trade in this species. This listing was removed from CITES in June 2010 by the South African government and South African abalone is no longer subject to CITES trade controls. Export permits are still required, however.
The abalone meat from South Africa is prohibited for sale in the country to help reduce poaching; however, much of the illegally harvested meat is sold in Asian countries. As of early 2008, the wholesale price for abalone meat was approximately US$40.00 per kilogram. There is an active trade in the shells, which sell for more than US$1,400 per [[tonne]].

==== Channel Islands, Brittany and Normandy ====
Ormers (''[[Green ormer|Haliotis tuberculata]]'') are considered a delicacy in the British [[Channel Islands]] as well as in adjacent areas of France, and are pursued with great alacrity by the locals. This, and a recent lethal bacterial disease,<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://jerseyeveningpost.com/island-life/history-heritage/ormers/ |title=Ormers « Jersey Evening Post |access-date=18 June 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150618131323/http://jerseyeveningpost.com/island-life/history-heritage/ormers/ |archive-date=18 June 2015 |url-status=dead }}</ref> has led to a dramatic depletion in numbers since the latter half of the 19th century, and "ormering" is now strictly regulated to preserve stocks. The gathering of ormers is now restricted to a number of 'ormering tides', from 1 January to 30 April, which occur on the full or new moon and two days following. No ormers may be taken from the beach that are under {{convert|80|mm|in}} in shell length. Gatherers are not allowed to wear wetsuits or even put their heads underwater. Any breach of these laws is a criminal offence and can lead to a fine of up to £5,000 or six months in prison.<ref>{{harvnb|Anon|2014b}}</ref> The demand for ormers is such that they led to the world's first underwater arrest, when Mr. Kempthorne-Leigh of [[Guernsey]] was arrested by a police officer in full diving gear when illegally diving for ormers.<ref>{{harvnb|Anon|1969|p=16}}</ref>

<gallery class="center">
File:AbaloneMeat.jpg|The raw meat of abalone
File:Seeohr-Sashimi.jpg|Abalone sashimi
File:Chineseabalonecuisine.jpg|Braised abalone
File:Abalone & Asparagus, Stir-Fried with Black Bean Sauce (207804042).jpg|Abalone with [[asparagus]]
File:Cantoneseabalone.jpg|Abalone ''bao yu''
File:Korean grilled abalone-Jeonbok gui-01.jpg|Grilled abalone
File:Korean cuisine-Jeju Island-Obunjagi ttukbaegi-01.jpg|A Korean abalone stew
File:Korean cuisine-Jeonbok hoe-01.jpg|Abalone ''[[Hoe (dish)|Hoe]]''
File:HK Food Chinese Seafood Dinner 鮑魚仔 Steamed Abalone with Mandarin orange peels.JPG|Abalone with [[mandarin orange]] peels.
File:Abalone (dish) - in Macau.jpg|Abalone (dish) - in [[Macau]]
</gallery>

=== Decorative items ===
[[File:Carving of chief (detail), Haida, c. 1890, wood, paint, abalone shell - Fairbanks Museum and Planetarium - DSC04327.JPG|thumb|[[Haida people|Haida]] carving with rectangular abalone shell accents]]
The highly iridescent inner nacre layer of the shell of abalone has traditionally been used as a decorative item, in jewelry,<ref name=MtSS /> buttons, and as inlay in furniture and musical instruments, such as on [[fret board]]s and binding of guitars.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.fretboardjournal.com/features/guitar-lovers-guide-cites-conservation-treaty/|title=A Guitar Lover's Guide to the CITES Conservation Treaty {{!}} Fretboard Journal|date=2 September 2008|work=Fretboard Journal|access-date=27 October 2018|language=en-US}}</ref> See article [[Najeonchilgi]] regarding Korean handicraft. 

=== Indigenous use ===
Abalone has been an important staple in a number of [[Indigenous peoples|Indigenous]] cultures around the world, specifically in [[Indigenous peoples of Africa|Africa]] and on the [[Indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast|Northwest American coast]]. The meat is a traditional food, and the shell is used to make ornaments; historically, the shells were also used as currency in some communities.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Abalone Tales|last=Field|first=Les|publisher=Duke University Press|year=2008}}</ref>