Editing Affirmative action (section)

==National approaches==
{{See also|Reserved political positions}}

In some countries that have laws on racial equality, affirmative action is rendered illegal because it does not treat all races equally. This approach of equal treatment is sometimes described as being "[[Color blindness (race)|color blind]]", in hopes that it is effective against discrimination without engaging in [[reverse discrimination]].

In such countries, the focus tends to be on ensuring equal opportunity and, for example, targeted advertising campaigns to encourage ethnic minority candidates to join the police force. This is sometimes called [[positive action]].

===Africa===
====South Africa====
{{See also|Black Economic Empowerment}}
Between 1948 and 1974, the [[apartheid]] government introduced statutes which enshrined racial discrimination in all areas of life. Individuals were classified in a racial hierarchy which placed whites at the top, followed by "[[Coloureds]]", 
then Asians or Indians, with black Africans at the bottom. Benefits were afforded based on this hierarchy, and favoured white-owned, especially [[Afrikaner]]-owned companies, which marginalised and excluded black people and limited their employment opportunities. Legislation meant that skilled and highly paid jobs were reserved for [[white people]], and black people were largely used as cheap, unskilled labour, creating and extending the "colour bar" in South African labour.<ref name="Thaver 2017">Thaver, Beverly. "Affirmative action in South Africa: The limits of history." In ''Race and Inequality'', pp. 167-186. Routledge, 2017.</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sahistory.org.za/luli-35 |title=White Workers and the Colour Bar |publisher=Sahistory.org.za |access-date=31 May 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140319002102/http://www.sahistory.org.za/luli-35 |archive-date=19 March 2014 |date=3 April 2011 }}</ref><ref name="africa">[http://www.economist.com/node/244570 Race, law and poverty in the new South Africa], The Economist, 30 September 1999</ref> The variation in skills and productivity between groups of people ultimately caused disparities in employment, occupation, and income within labour markets. Following the end of apartheid, affirmative action legislation aimed to address these disparities.<ref name=prob>{{cite web |last=Stokes|first= G. |date=15 March 2010 |title=The problem with affirmative action |url=http://www.fanews.co.za/article.asp?Front_Page_Features~25,Stokes_Stage~1145,The_problem_with_affirmative_action~7618 |publisher=Fanews.co.za}}</ref>

The [[African National Congress]]-led government chose to implement affirmative action legislation to correct previous imbalances (a policy known as employment equity), and fulfil the obligations of the Republic as a member of the International Labour Organisation.<ref name=prob/><ref name=aff>{{cite journal |last=Bergmann |first=B. |year=1999 |title=The continuing need for affirmative action |journal=The Quarterly Review of Economics and Finance |volume=39 |issue=5 |pages=757–768 |doi=10.1016/S1062-9769(99)00027-7  |issn = 1062-9769 }}</ref> As a result of the [[Employment Equity Act]] and the [[Broad Based Black Economic Empowerment]] Act, companies were required to employ previously disenfranchised groups (blacks, [[Indian South Africans|Indians]], and Coloureds), as well as women and disabled people.<ref>[http://www.ecsecc.org/files/publications/120307130010.pdf Archived copy] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140318215653/http://www.ecsecc.org/files/publications/120307130010.pdf|date=18 March 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.southafrica.info/services/rights/employmentequity.htm |title=Employment Equity FAQ |publisher=Southafrica.info |access-date=11 April 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120401103321/http://www.southafrica.info/services/rights/employmentequity.htm |archive-date=1 April 2012 }}</ref> 

Many have embraced these acts; others have criticised them.{{efn|<ref name=prob/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mg.co.za/article/2010-02-03-bees-glass-slipper |title=BEE's Glass Slipper |date=3 February 2010 |publisher=Mg.co.za |access-date=11 April 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.moneyweb.co.za/mw/view/mw/en/page292679?oid=346519&sn=2009+Detail+no+image&pid=295799 |title=BEE: A man made disaster |publisher=Moneyweb.co.za |access-date=11 April 2012}}</ref><ref name="fin24.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.fin24.com/articles/default/display_article.aspx?ArticleId=1518-24_2564628 |title='SAB deal to enrich black elite': Fin24: Companies |publisher=Fin24 |access-date=29 July 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111003093857/http://www.fin24.com/articles/default/display_article.aspx?ArticleId=1518-24_2564628 |archive-date=3 October 2011 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.busrep.co.za/index.php?fArticleId=5340048 |archive-url=http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20160516113211/http://www.busrep.co.za/index.php?fArticleId=5340048 |url-status=dead |archive-date=16 May 2016 |title=Business Report – Home – Motlanthe warns BEE council has failed |publisher=Busrep.co.za |date=9 February 2010 |access-date=29 July 2010 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mg.co.za/article/2009-11-20-manyi-vows-to-get-tough-over-bee |title=Manyi vows to get tough over BEE – Mail & Guardian Online: The smart news source |date=20 November 2009 |publisher=Mg.co.za |access-date=29 July 2010}}</ref>}} Proponents have said that South African affirmative action legislation aims to promote economic growth rather than to redistribute wealth,<ref>{{cite journal |last=Franchi|first= V. |year=2003 |title=The racialization of affirmative action in organizational discourses: A case study of symbolic racism in post-apartheid South Africa |volume= 27 |issue= 2 |pages= 157–187 |journal= International Journal of Intercultural Relations |doi= 10.1016/S0147-1767(02)00091-3 }}</ref><ref name=info>{{cite web |title=Black economic empowerment. (n.d.) |url=http://www.southafrica.info/business/trends/empowerment/bee.htm |publisher=Southafrica.info |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121101222356/http://southafrica.info/business/trends/empowerment/bee.htm |archive-date=1 November 2012 }}</ref> address [[Wealth inequality in South Africa|vast racial inequalities]] in wealth and income,<ref name="Shai 2019">{{Cite journal|last1=Shai|first1=Lerato|last2=Molefinyana|first2=Comfort|last3=Quinot|first3=Geo|date=2019-12-13|title=Public Procurement in the Context of Broad-Based Black Economic Empowerment (BBBEE) in South Africa—Lessons Learned for Sustainable Public Procurement|journal=Sustainability|volume=11|issue=24|pages=7164|doi=10.3390/su11247164|issn=2071-1050|doi-access=free}}</ref>  and to restore equal access to the benefits of society.<ref name=prob/> Critics suggest these laws limit the free market, raise costs, reduce economic growth, and advantage the black middle class over poorer blacks and other groups.<ref name=aff/><ref name=dem>{{cite web|last=Edigheji |first=O. |year=2006 |title=Affirmative action and state capacity in a democratic South Africa. Policy: issues & actors, 20(4) |url=http://cps.org.za/cps%20pdf/pia20_4.pdf |website=cps.org.za |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140519150723/http://cps.org.za/cps%20pdf/pia20_4.pdf |archive-date=19 May 2014 }}</ref><ref name=culture>Goga, F. (n.d.). ''A critique of affirmative action: The concept''. Retrieved from {{cite web|url=http://ccms.ukzn.ac.za/index.php |title=Culture, Communication and Media Studies - Home |access-date=5 November 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120622114513/http://ccms.ukzn.ac.za/index.php |archive-date=22 June 2012 }}</ref> The [[Supreme Court of Appeal of South Africa]] ruled that while blacks may be favoured in principle, in practice this should not lead to unfair discrimination against others.<ref name="africa" />

====Ghana==== 

The Parliament of Ghana passed the Affirmative Action Bill on July 30, 2024.<ref>{{Cite web |last=admin |date=2024-08-08 |title=Affirmative Action Act, 2024 (Gender Equity ) Passed by Parliament {{!}} Newsroom - Ministry of Information, Ghana |url=https://moi.gov.gh/newsroom/2024/08/affirmative-action-act-2024-gender-equity-passed-by-parliament/ |access-date=2024-09-09 |language=en-US}}</ref> The bill aims to increase the number of women in politics, with a target of 30% by 2026, 35% by 2028 and 50% by 2030. The [[2024 Ghanaian general election]] in December was the first with affirmative action legislation in place. In the election campaign, both the ruling [[New Patriotic Party]] and the main opposition party [[National Democratic Congress (Ghana)|NDC]] voiced their commitment to the targets, in an effort to appeal to women voters. After the election, the number of women remained the same as after the 2020 election (15%).<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ghana's democracy stress tested – three milestones passed - The Nordic Africa Institute |url=https://nai.uu.se/stories-and-events/news/2025-02-06-ghanas-democracy-stress-tested---three-milestones-passed.html |access-date=2025-02-07 |website=nai.uu.se |language=en}}</ref> In his inaugural speech on 7 January 2025, the newly elected President [[John Mahama]] said the NDC was committed to "breaking the glass ceiling" for women in politics.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Effah |first=Evans |date=2025-01-07 |title=Full Text: Read President Mahama’s inaugural speech |url=https://3news.com/news/full-text-read-president-mahamas-inaugural-speech/ |access-date=2025-02-07 |language=en-US}}</ref>

===Asia===
====China====
{{main|Affirmative action in China}}
There is affirmative action in education for minority nationalities in China, this may equate to lowering minimum requirements for the National University Entrance Examination, which is a mandatory exam for all students to enter university.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.moe.gov.cn/edoas/website18/30/info26630.htm|title=Graduate Student Admission Ordainment – Ministry of Education, PRC|accessdate=31 March 2023}}{{Dead link|date=April 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mzzjw.gd.gov.cn/mzjy/ShowArticle.asp?ArticleID=541 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090105011631/http://www.mzzjw.gd.gov.cn/mzjy/ShowArticle.asp?ArticleID=541 |url-status=dead |archive-date=5 January 2009 |title=Ethnic and Religious Affairs Commission of Guangdong Province |publisher=Mzzjw.gd.gov.cn |date=15 October 2007 |access-date=11 April 2012 }}</ref> [[Liangshaoyikuan]] refers a policy in China on affirmative action in [[criminal justice]].

====Israel====
A class-based affirmative action policy was incorporated into the admission practices of the four most selective universities in [[Israel]] during the early to mid-2000s. In evaluating the eligibility of applicants, neither their financial status nor their national or ethnic origins are considered; the emphasis is on structural disadvantages, especially neighborhood socioeconomic status and high school rigor, although several individual hardships are also weighed. This policy made the four institutions, especially the echelons at the most selective departments, more diverse than they otherwise would have been. Proponents of this model have said that rising geographic, economic and demographic diversity of the student population suggests the focus on structural determinants of disadvantage yields broad diversity dividends.<ref name="Alon 2011">{{cite journal |author=Alon, Sigal |year=2011 |title=The Diversity Dividends of a Need-blind and Color-blind Affirmative Action Policy |pages=1494–1505 |journal= Social Science Research |volume=40 |issue=6 |doi=10.1016/j.ssresearch.2011.05.005 }}</ref>

In civil service employment, Israeli citizens who are women, Arabs, Blacks or people with disabilities are supported by affirmative action policies.<ref name="moital.gov.il">{{cite web|url=http://www.moital.gov.il/NR/exeres/8C492E47-135C-4B82-84D7-C62254B8BFEF.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130201010211/http://www.moital.gov.il/NR/exeres/8C492E47-135C-4B82-84D7-C62254B8BFEF.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=1 February 2013|title=משרד הכלכלה והתעשייה|website=משרד הכלכלה והתעשייה|access-date=22 October 2017}}</ref> Israeli citizens who are Arabs, Blacks or people with disabilities are also entitled to full university scholarships from the state.<ref name="che.org.il">[http://che.org.il/wp-content/uploads/2013/10/%D7%94%D7%97%D7%9C%D7%98%D7%AA-%D7%95%D7%AA%D7%AA-%D7%9E%D7%A1-1-%D7%AA%D7%A9%D7%A2%D7%93.pdf החלטות ישיבת הוועדה לתכנון ולתקצוב מס'1)100] Council for Higher Education (in Hebrew). Retrieved 31 March 2023</ref>

====India====
{{Main|Reservation in India}}

Reservation in India is a form of affirmative action designed to improve the well-being of [[Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes]] (SC/ST), and [[Other Backward Class]]es (OBC), defined primarily by their caste. Members of these categories comprise about two-thirds of the population of India.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/hlo/pca/pca_pdf/PCA-CRC-0000.pdf |title=2011 Census Primary Census Abstract |work=Censusindia.gov.in|access-date=1 October 2017}}</ref><ref name="TOI2007">{{cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/OBCs-form-41-of-population-Survey/articleshow/2328117.cms|title=OBCs form 41% of population: Survey|access-date=21 November 2020|work=[[Times of India]]|publisher=[[Bennett, Coleman & Company]]|date=1 September 2007|url-status=live|archive-date=17 April 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200417023834/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/OBCs-form-41-of-population-Survey/articleshow/2328117.cms}}</ref> According to the [[Constitution of India]], up to 50% of all government-run higher education admissions and government job vacancies may be reserved for members of the SC/ST/OBC-NCL categories, and 10% for those in [[Economically Weaker Section]]s (EWS), with the remaining unreserved.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.deccanherald.com/national/cabinet-approves-10-pc-711767.html|title=Govt OKs 10% job quota for economically weaker sections|date=7 January 2019|website=Deccan Herald|language=en|access-date=7 January 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/big-move-by-modi-government-ahead-of-polls-announces-10-quota-for-upper-castes-reports/articleshow/67418661.cms|title=Modi govt announces 10 per cent quota for economically backward in general category|date=7 January 2019|work=The Economic Times|access-date=7 January 2019}}</ref> In 2014, the [[Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation|Indian National Sample Survey]] found that 12% of surveyed Indian households had received academic scholarships, with 94% being on account of SC/ST/OBC membership, 2% based on financial weakness and 0.7% based on merit.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.rediff.com/news/report/rediff-labs-can-you-guess-how-many-indians-get-merit-based-scholarships/20140901.htm|title=Guess how many Indians get merit-based scholarships|work=Rediff|access-date=3 January 2018}}</ref>

====Indonesia====
Indonesia has offered affirmative action for [[Indigenous people of New Guinea|native Papuans]] in education, government civil worker selection, and police & army selection.<ref>{{Cite web|title=777 Putra Asli Papua Lolos Program Beasiswa ADIK dan ADEM|url=https://kumparan.com/bumi-papua/777-putra-asli-papua-lolos-program-beasiswa-adik-dan-adem-1rUFs1b6OUB|access-date=6 August 2020|website=kumparan|language=id-ID}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Afirmasi Pendidikan Tinggi – Kementerian Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan Republik Indonesia|url=https://adik.kemdikbud.go.id/|access-date=6 August 2020|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Debora |first=Yantina |editor-last=Hartanto |editor-first=Agung Dwi |title=Seleksi CPNS KKP 2019–2020: Ada Kekhususan Bagi Orang Papua |url=https://tirto.id/seleksi-cpns-kkp-2019-2020-ada-kekhususan-bagi-orang-papua-ewR4 |access-date=6 August 2020 |website=tirto.id |date=4 February 2020 |language=id}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Rumagit |first=Alfian |date=25 February 2020 |editor-last=Jauhary |editor-first=Andi |title=OAP calon siswa Bintara Noken di Papua capai 2.407 orang |url=https://www.antaranews.com/berita/1319146/oap-calon-siswa-bintara-noken-di-papua-capai-2407-orang |access-date=6 August 2020 |website=Antara News}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Redaksi|title=Gercin Minta Kapolri Akomodir OAP Masuk Akpol {{!}} Papua Today|date=22 March 2019 |url=https://www.papuatoday.com/2019/03/22/gercin-minta-kapolri-akomodir-oap-masuk-akpol/|access-date=6 August 2020|language=id-ID}}</ref> After the [[2019 Papua protests]], many Papuan students chose to abandon their scholarship and return to their respective provinces.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Yunelia |first=Intan |date=3 October 2019 |title=Siswa SMA Penerima Beasiswa Memilih Pulang ke Papua |url=https://www.medcom.id/pendidikan/news-pendidikan/eN4Rz4ok-siswa-sma-penerima-beasiswa-memilih-pulang-ke-papua |access-date=6 August 2020 |website=medcom.id |language=id}}</ref> The program has been subject to criticism, with complaints made towards a lack of sufficient quotas and alleged corruption. [[Prabowo Subianto]], Indonesian [[Ministry of Defense (Indonesia)|defense minister]], has expressed that he will direct more effort towards recruiting Papuans to the [[Indonesian National Armed Forces]].<ref>{{Cite web |last= |title=Prabowo Disebut Bakal Perbanyak Prajurit TNI Asal Papua |url=https://www.cnnindonesia.com/nasional/20191212091931-32-456266/prabowo-disebut-bakal-perbanyak-prajurit-tni-asal-papua |access-date=6 August 2020 |website=nasional |language=id-ID}}</ref> Education scholarship by [[Ministry of Education and Culture (Indonesia)|Ministry of Education and Culture]], called ADik to the native Papuans and students from perhipery regions close to Indonesian border.<ref>{{Cite web|last=INDBeasiswa|title=Beasiswa ADik untuk Pelajar Papua dan 3T • INDBeasiswa|date=10 May 2019 |url=https://indbeasiswa.com/2019/05/beasiswa-adik-untuk-pelajar-papua-daerah-3t.html|access-date=24 February 2021|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Nasikhah |first=Nunung |date=10 December 2019 |title=Mengenal ADik, Beasiswa Kuliah S1 dari Pemerintah RI untuk Generasi Papua dan Daerah 3T |url=https://www.urbanasia.com/mengenal-adik-beasiswa-kuliah-s1-dari-pemerintah-ri-untuk-generasi-papua-dan-daerah-3t-U6573 |access-date=24 February 2021 |website=www.urbanasia.com |language=id}}</ref>

====Malaysia====
{{See also|Bumiputera (Malaysia)|Ketuanan Melayu}}

The [[Malaysian New Economic Policy]] (NEP) is a form of ethnicity-based affirmative action aimed at addressing socioeconomic disadvantages among those who are deemed "Bumiputera", which includes the Malay population, [[Orang Asli]], and the indigenous people of [[Sabah]] and [[Sarawak]], who together form a majority of the population.<ref>{{cite web|last=Ravallion1|first=Martin|title=Ethnic Inequality and Poverty in Malaysia|url=http://www.ecineq.org/ecineq_paris19/papers_EcineqPSE/paper_406.pdf|publisher=[[Georgetown University]], [[University of Malaya]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nationsencyclopedia.com/economies/Asia-and-the-Pacific/Malaysia-POVERTY-AND-WEALTH.html |title=Encyclopedia of the Nations, "Malaysia Poverty and Wealth" |publisher=Nationsencyclopedia.com |access-date=11 April 2012}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last1=Mason|first1=Richard|title=The 'Bumiputera Policy': Dynamics and Dilemmas|last2=Omar|first2=Ariffin|publisher=[[Universiti Sains Malaysia]]|year=2004|isbn=|location=Malaysia}}</ref> Within Malaysia, the Malays (representing 58% of the population) have lower incomes than [[Chinese Malaysian]]s (22% of the population) and [[Indian Malaysian]]s (6% of the population), who have traditionally been involved in businesses and industries, and who were also general migrant workers.<ref>{{cite web|last=Ravallion1|first=Martin|title=Ethnic Inequality and Poverty in Malaysia|url=http://www.ecineq.org/ecineq_paris19/papers_EcineqPSE/paper_406.pdf|publisher=[[Georgetown University]], [[University of Malaya]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nationsencyclopedia.com/economies/Asia-and-the-Pacific/Malaysia-POVERTY-AND-WEALTH.html |title=Encyclopedia of the Nations, "Malaysia Poverty and Wealth" |publisher=Nationsencyclopedia.com |access-date=11 April 2012}}</ref> The mean income for Malays, Chinese and Indians in 1957/58 were 134, 288 and 228 respectively. In 1967/68 it was 154, 329 and 245, and in 1970 it was 170, 390 and 300. Mean income disparity ratio for Chinese/Malays rose from 2.1 in 1957/58 to 2.3 in 1970, whereas for Indians/Malays the disparity ratio also rose from 1.7 to 1.8 in the same period.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Perumal |first=M. |year=1989 |title=Economic Growth and Income Inequality in Malaysia, 1957–1984 |journal=Singapore Economic Review |volume=34 |issue=2 |pages=33–46 }}</ref>

To address these inequalities, following the sectarian violence of the [[13 May incident]] in 1969, the NEP was introduced as a time-limited policy, which was supposed to expire after 20 years but remains policy to this day. Although the NEP has succeeded in creating a significant urban Malay and [[Borneo|Native Bornean]] middle class, it has been less effective in eradicating poverty among rural communities.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=U47j2dS6C_I|title=Malaysia ethnic tribes 'forced to convert'|via=www.youtube.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IXLHBZvUhrQ|title=Quickiepedia &#124; Outcasts in their own land – The Orang Asli|via=www.youtube.com}}</ref> Critics say it has widened disparities between the wealthy and middle classes, and those who are poorest.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.malaysiakini.com/news/492357|title=The real issue is intra-Malay economic inequality|first=Nik Nazmi Nik|last=Ahmad|date=18 September 2019|website=Malaysiakini}}</ref> It has also been described as racially discriminatory.<ref>{{cite news|title=A Never Ending Policy|url=https://www.economist.com/briefing/2013/04/27/a-never-ending-policy|access-date=20 April 2019|newspaper=The Economist|date=27 April 2013}}</ref>

====Taiwan====
A 2004 legislation requires that, for a firm with 100 employees or more wishing to compete for government contracts, at least 1 percent of its employees must be [[Taiwanese aborigines]].<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://minorityrights.org/minorities/indigenous-peoples-7/|title=Taiwan: Indigenous peoples |website = Minority Rights Group International|date=19 June 2015 }}</ref> Ministry of Education and [[Council of Indigenous Peoples|Council of Aboriginal Affairs]] announced in 2002 that Taiwanese Aboriginal students would have their high-school or undergraduate entrance exams boosted by 33% for demonstrating some knowledge of their tribal language and culture.<ref name="HolsingerJacob2009">{{cite book|author1=Donald B. Holsinger|author2=W. James Jacob |title=Inequality in Education: Comparative and International Perspectives|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=-lIGaO2-aq4C&pg=PA295 |date=29 May 2009|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-90-481-2652-1|page=295}}</ref> The percentage of boost have been revised several times, and the latest percentage is 35% in 2013.<ref>{{Cite web | url= http://law.moj.gov.tw/LawClass/LawOldVer.aspx?Pcode=H0020031&LNNDATE=20130819&LSER=001 | title=原住民學生升學保障及原住民公費留學辦法(民國 102 年08月19 日 )|trans-title=Aboriginal Students Enrollment Guarantee and Public Funding for Aboriginal Study Abroad Act | publisher=[[Ministry of Justice (Taiwan)]] | language=zh}}</ref>

===Europe===

==== Denmark ====
Greenlanders have special advantages when applying for university, college or vocation university degrees in Denmark. With these specific rules, Greenlanders can get into degrees without the required grade averages by fulfilling certain criteria. They need to have a grade average of over 6,0 and have lived a certain number of years in Greenland. These rules have been in force since 1 January 2014.<ref>{{Cite web|last=lok|title=Optagelse af grønlandske ansøgere — Uddannelses- og Forskningsministeriet|url=https://ufm.dk/uddannelse/videregaende-uddannelse/sogning-optag-og-vejledning/optagelse/optagelse-af-gronlandske-ansogere|access-date=29 August 2020|website=ufm.dk|language=da}}</ref>

==== Finland ====
In certain university education programs, including legal and medical education, there are quotas for persons who reach a certain standard of skills in the [[Swedish language]]; for students admitted in these quotas, the education is partially arranged in Swedish.<ref name="Helsinki med">{{cite web|title=Hakuopas 2011. Lääketieteen ja hammaslääketieteen opiskelijavalinnat |url=http://www.med.helsinki.fi/peruskoulutus/docs/opiskelijaksi/hakuopas_2011.pdf |publisher=Faculty of Medicine, University of Helsinki |access-date=4 June 2011 |language=fi |year=2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111002143806/http://www.med.helsinki.fi/peruskoulutus/docs/opiskelijaksi/hakuopas_2011.pdf |archive-date=2 October 2011 }}</ref><ref name="Helsinki law">{{cite web|title=Oikeustieteellinen tiedekunta. Hakuopas 2011|url=http://www.helsinki.fi/oikeustiede/opiskelijaksi/valintakokeet/2011/hakuopas_2011.pdf|publisher=Faculty of Law, University of Helsinki|access-date=4 June 2011|page=3|language=fi|year=2011}}</ref> The purpose of the quotas is to guarantee that a sufficient number of professionals with skills in Swedish are educated for nationwide needs.<ref name="Helsinki med" />

==== France ====
No distinctions based on race, religion or sex are allowed under the 1958 [[French Constitution]].<ref>{{cite web|author=Jonathan D. Mott, PhD |url=http://thisnation.com/library/france.html |title=The French Constitution of 1958 and its Amendments |publisher=Thisnation.com |date=7 February 1992 |access-date=28 April 2014}}</ref> Since the 1980s, a French version of affirmative action based on neighborhood is in place for primary and secondary education. Some schools, in neighborhoods labeled "Priority Education Zones", are granted more funds than the others. Students from these schools also benefit from special policies in certain institutions (such as [[Sciences Po]]).<ref>{{Cite journal | doi=10.3989/chdj.2015.016|title = Esencia colonial de una política contemporánea: Por un enfoque fanoniano de la discriminación positiva en Francia| journal=Culture & History Digital Journal| volume=4| issue=2| pages=e016|year = 2015|last1 = Ghorbal|first1 = Karim| doi-access=free}}</ref>

The French Ministry of Defence tried in 1990 to make it easier for young French soldiers of North-African descent to be promoted in rank and obtain driving licenses. After a strong protest by a young French lieutenant in the Ministry of Defence newspaper (''Armées d'aujourd'hui''), the driving license and rank plan was cancelled.<ref>Jean-Pierre Steinhofer, "Beur ou ordinaire", ''Armée d'ajourd'hui'', 1991.</ref> After the Sarkozy election, a new attempt in favour of Arab-French students was made, but Sarkozy did not gain enough political support to change the French constitution.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.lemonde.fr/politique/article/2008/12/17/le-plan-sarkozy-pour-favoriser-l-egalite-reelle-des-chances_1132074_823448.html#ens_id=1128487° |title=Le Plan Sarkozy |work=Le Monde  |date=17 December 2008 |access-date=11 April 2012|last1=Eeckhout |first1=Laetitia Van }}</ref>

After 27 January 2014, following the Norwegian example, women had to represent at least 20% of board members in all stock-exchange-listed or state-owned companies. After 27 January 2017, the proportion increased to 40%. All appointments of men as directors were deemed invalid as long as the quotas were not met, and monetary penalties may apply for other directors.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.vie-publique.fr/actualite/panorama/texte-discussion/proposition-loi-relative-representation-equilibree-femmes-hommes-au-sein-conseils-administration-surveillance-egalite-professionnelle.html |title=Vie Publique |publisher=Vie-publique.fr |date=25 June 2002 |access-date=11 April 2012}}</ref>

==== Germany ====
Article 3 of the [[Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany|German Basic Law]] provides for equal rights of all people regardless of sex, race or social background. There are programs stating that if men and women have equal qualifications, women have to be preferred for a job; moreover, the disabled should be preferred to non-disabled people. This is typical for all positions in state and university service {{as of|2007|lc=y}}, typically using the phrase "We try to increase diversity in this line of work". In recent years, there has been a long public debate about whether to issue programs that would grant women a privileged access to jobs in order to fight discrimination. Germany's ''[[The Left (Germany)|Left Party]]'' brought up the discussion about affirmative action in [[Education in Germany|Germany's school system]]. According to Stefan Zillich, quotas should be "a possibility" to help working class children who did not do well in school gain access to a ''[[Gymnasium (Germany)|Gymnasium]]'' (University-preparatory school).<ref>Susanne Vieth-Entus (29. December 2008): "Sozialquote: Berliner Gymnasien sollen mehr Schüler aus armen Familien aufnehmen". Der Tagesspiegel</ref> Headmasters of ''Gymnasien'' have objected, saying that this type of policy would "be a disservice" to poor children.<ref>Martin Klesmann (23 February 2009). "'Kinder aus Neukölln würden sich nicht integrieren lassen' – Ein Politiker und ein Schulleiter streiten über Sozialquoten an Gymnasien". Berliner Zeitung</ref>

==== Norway ====
The boards of all [[Allmennaksjeselskap|public stock companies (ASA)]] in Norway should have at least 40% of either gender.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.lovdata.no/all/tl-19970613-045-032.html#6-3 |title=LOV-1997-06-13-45 Lov om allmennaksjeselskaper (allmennaksjeloven) |publisher=Lovdata.no |access-date=29 July 2010}}</ref> This affects roughly 400 companies of over 300,000 in total.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nettavisen.no/nyheter/27-000-flere-bedrifter-i-norge/1874337.html |title=27.000 flere bedrifter i Norge |date=27 May 2004 |publisher=nettavisen.no |access-date=31 May 2015}}</ref> In their study of the effects of affirmative action on presence, prominence, and social capital of women directors in Norway, researchers Seierstad & Opsahl found that, when the affirmative action policy was first implemented, only 7 prominent directors were women and 84 were men. By August 2009, this had risen to 107 women compared to 117 men. The proportion of boards led by a woman remained low overall, but increased from 3.4% to 4.3%. By applying more restrictive definitions of prominence, the proportion of directors who were women generally increased. If only considering directors with at least three directorships, 61.4% of them were women. When considering directors with seven or more directorships, all of them were women.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Seierstad |first1=Cathrine |last2=Opsahl |first2=Tore |title=For the few not the many? The effects of affirmative action on presence, prominence, and social capital of women directors in Norway |journal=Scandinavian Journal of Management |date=March 2011 |volume=27 |issue=1 |pages=44–54 |doi=10.1016/j.scaman.2010.10.002 }}</ref> A 2016 study found no effect of the ASA representation requirement on either valuation or profits of the affected companies, and also no correlation between the requirement and the restructuring of companies away from ASA.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://e24.no/makro-og-politikk/norges-handelshoeyskole/studie-kjoennskvotering-ingen-effekt-paa-loennsomhet/23783217 |title=Studie: Kjønnskvotering ingen effekt på lønnsomhet |date=2 September 2016 |publisher=e24.no |access-date=5 June 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Eckbo |first1=B. Espen |last2=Nygaard |first2=Knut |last3=Thorburn |first3=Karin S. |title=Valuation effects of Norway's board gender-quota law revisited |journal=Management Science |date=18 August 2021 |volume=68 |issue=6 |pages=4112–4134 |doi=10.1287/mnsc.2021.4031 |hdl=11250/3046314 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>

==== Romania ====
[[Romani people]] are allocated quotas for access to public schools and state universities.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mmuncii.ro/old/ro/domenii-politici-familiale-incluziune-si-asistenta-sociala-romii---progrese-inregistrate-in-romania-in-perioada-2007---2008-540-view.html |title=Romii – PROGRESE ÎNREGISTRATE ÎN ROMÂNIA ÎN PERIOADA 2007–2008 |access-date=30 January 2013 }}{{dead link|date=June 2016|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref>

==== Soviet Union and Russia ====
Soon after the 1918 revolution, [[Inessa Armand]], [[Lenin]]'s secretary and lover, was instrumental in creating [[Zhenotdel]], which functioned until the 1930s as part of the international egalitarian and affirmative action movements.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Stites |first1=Richard |title=Zhenotdel: Bolshevism and Russian Women, 1917–1930 |journal=Russian History |date=1976 |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=174–193 |doi=10.1163/187633176X00107 |jstor=24649711 |quote=These egalitarian and affirmative action movements—in other words, early "communism"—receive short shrift in most Western studies... }}</ref><ref>{{cite thesis |last1=Patterson |first1=Michelle Jane |title=Red 'Teaspoons of Charity': Zhenotdel, Russian Women, and the Communist Party, 1919–1930 |date=29 February 2012 |hdl=1807/32159 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |doi=10.1057/9780230501799_11 |chapter=Socialism in One Gender: Masculine Values in the Stalin Revolution |title=Russian Masculinities in History and Culture |year=2002 |last1=Schrand |first1=Thomas G. |pages=194–209 |isbn=978-1-349-42592-1 }}</ref> Quota systems existed in the [[USSR]] for various social groups including [[ethnic minorities]], women and factory workers. Before 1934 ethnic minorities were described as [[cultural backwardness|culturally backward]], but in 1934 this term was found inappropriate.<ref name="q189">{{cite book |first = Terry Dean |last = Martin |title = The Affirmative Action Empire: Nations and Nationalism in the Soviet Union, 1923-1939| year = 2001| publisher = [[Cornell University Press]]| location = United States| isbn = 978-0-8014-8677-7 }}</ref> In 1920s and early 1930s [[Korenizatsiia]] applied affirmative action to ethnic minorities.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Nicolaïdis |first1=Kalypso |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=T9SLDwAAQBAJ |title=Echoes of Empire: Memory, Identity and Colonial Legacies |last2=Sebe |first2=Berny |last3=Maas |first3=Gabrielle |date=2014-12-23 |publisher=[[Bloomsbury Publishing]] |isbn=978-0-85773-896-7 |language=en |quote=Elsewhere in the USSR, the late 1930s and the outbreak of World War II also saw some significant changes: elements of korenizatsiya were phased out... the Russians were officially anointed as the 'elder brothers' of the Soviet family of nations, whilst among historians Tsarist imperialism was rehabilitated as having had a 'progressive significance' |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Chang |first=Jon K. |title=Tsarist continuities in Soviet nationalities policy: A case of Korean territorial autonomy in the Soviet Far East, 1923–1937 |url=https://www.academia.edu/17823472 |journal=Eurasia Studies Society of Great Britain & Europe Journal}}</ref> Quotas for access to university education, offices in the Soviet system and the Communist Party existed: for example, the position of First Secretary of a Soviet Republic's (or Autonomous Republic's) Party Committee was always filled by a representative of this republic's "[[titular ethnicity]]".{{citation needed|date=February 2025}} Russia retains this system partially. Quotas are abolished, but preferences for some ethnic minorities and inhabitants of certain territories remain.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://sakhapress.ru/archives/207211|title=Представители коренных малочисленных народов Севера имеют право получить бесплатную юридическую помощь|date=18 February 2016}}</ref>

==== Serbia ====
The Constitution of the Republic of Serbia from 2006 established the principles of equality and the prohibition of discrimination on any grounds. It also allows affirmative action as "special measures" for certain marginalized groups, such as national minorities, by specifically excluding it from the legal definition of discrimination.<ref>[https://advokatiubeogradu.rs/legislation/constitution-of-the-republic-of-serbia.pdf Constitution of The Republic of Serbia] (Constitution of The Republic of Serbia), 2006.</ref> The Roma national minority is enabled to enroll in public schools under more favorable conditions.<ref>[http://www.upis.mpn.gov.rs/Cir/Pravilnici Pravilnik ministarstva prosvete o upisu u srednje škole] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200806034147/http://www.upis.mpn.gov.rs/Cir/Pravilnici |date=6 August 2020 }} (Regulation of the Ministry of Education on enrollment in secondary schools), 2021.</ref>

==== Slovakia ====
The [[Constitutional Court of Slovakia|Constitutional Court]] declared in October 2005 that affirmative action—i.e., "providing advantages for people of an ethnic or racial minority group"—was against its [[Constitution of Slovakia|Constitution]].<ref>{{cite web|last=Goldirova |first=Renata |url=http://euobserver.com/9/20123 |title=Slovakia bans positive discrimination |date=19 October 2005 |publisher=Euobserver.com |access-date=11 April 2012}}</ref>

==== United Kingdom ====
{{See also|Independent Commission on Policing for Northern Ireland}}
In the [[United Kingdom]], hiring someone simply because of their [[Protected group|protected-group]] status, without regard to their performance, is illegal. By default, so is any other form of discrimination, quota or favouritism based on such "protected characteristics" in education, in employment, during commercial transactions, at private clubs or associations, and while using public services.<ref name="cre" /><ref name="govuk">{{cite web |author=GOV.UK |author-link=Gov.uk |date=4 April 2013 |title=Types of discrimination |url=https://www.gov.uk/discrimination-your-rights/types-of-discrimination |access-date=7 April 2013 |work=Discrimination: your rights |publisher=GOV.UK}}</ref><ref name="personneltoday.com">{{Cite web |last=Millar |first=Michael |date=17 January 2006 |title=Is there a case for positive discrimination? |url=https://www.personneltoday.com/hr/is-there-a-case-for-positive-discrimination/ |access-date=13 July 2022 |website=Personnel Today |language=en-GB}}</ref> 

The [[Equality Act 2010]] does allow for membership in a protected and disadvantaged group to be considered in hiring and promotion when the group is under-represented in a given area and if the candidates are of equal merit (in which case membership in a disadvantaged group can become a "tie-breaker").<ref name="xperthr.co.uk">{{Cite web |title=What "positive action" is permitted under discrimination legislation? &#124; FAQs &#124; Tools &#124; XpertHR.co.uk |url=https://www.xperthr.co.uk/faq/what-positive-action-is-permitted-under-discrimination-legislation/103008/ |website=www.xperthr.co.uk}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2010/15 |title=Equality Act 2010 |publisher=Legislation.gov.uk |access-date=11 April 2012}}</ref> Under Section 159 of the Equality Act 2010, an employer must "reasonably think that people with the protected characteristic suffer a disadvantage or are under-represented in that particular activity" and any [[positive action]] must be "a proportionate means of enabling or encouraging people to overcome the disadvantage or to take part in the activity".<ref name="xperthr.co.uk" /> Specific exemptions include:
* As part of the [[Northern Ireland Peace Process]], the [[Good Friday Agreement]] and the resulting [[Patten report]], the [[Police Service of Northern Ireland]] are requires to recruit 50% of its numbers from the [[Catholic Church|Catholic]] community and 50% from the [[Protestantism|Protestant]] and [[Ethnic minorities in Northern Ireland|other communities]], in order to reduce any possible bias towards Protestants. This was later referred to as the "50:50" measure.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/northern_ireland/1540861.stm |title= Police recruitment 'will be 50:50' |work=BBC News |date=12 September 2001 }}</ref>
* The [[Sex Discrimination (Election Candidates) Act 2002]] allowed the use of [[all-women shortlists]] to select more women as election candidates.<ref>{{Cite book|url=http://www.parliament.uk/documents/commons/lib/research/briefings/snpc-05057.pdf|title=All-women shortlists|publisher=House of Commons Library|id=SN/PC/05057|date=29 April 2009|author=Richard Kelly and Isobel White|access-date=23 June 2009}}</ref>

In a 2019, an [[employment tribunal]], found that "while positive action can be used to boost diversity, it should only be applied to distinguish between candidates who were all equally well qualified for a role".<ref>{{Cite news | url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-merseyside-47335859 |title = Force discriminated against white male|work = BBC News|date = 22 February 2019}}</ref>

=== North America ===

==== Canada ====
{{Further|Employment equity (Canada)|Federal Contractors' Program}}
The equality section of the [[Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms]] explicitly permits affirmative action legislation, although the Charter does not ''require'' legislation that gives preferential treatment. Subsection 2 of [[Section Fifteen of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms|Section 15]] states that the equality provisions do "not preclude any law, program or activity that has as its object the amelioration of conditions of disadvantaged individuals or groups including those that are disadvantaged because of race, national or ethnic origin, colour, religion, sex, age or mental or physical disability".<ref>{{Cite web |last=Heritage |first=Canadian |date=2017-10-23 |title=Guide to the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms |url=https://www.canada.ca/en/canadian-heritage/services/how-rights-protected/guide-canadian-charter-rights-freedoms.html |access-date=2024-02-07 |website=www.canada.ca}}</ref>

The Canadian [[Employment Equity Act]] requires employers in federally-regulated industries to give preferential treatment to four designated groups: women, persons with disabilities, aboriginal peoples, and [[visible minorities]]. Less than one-third of Canadian Universities offer alternative admission requirements for students of aboriginal descent. Some provinces and territories also have affirmative action policies. For example, in the [[Northwest Territories]] in the Canadian north, aboriginal people are given preference for jobs and education and are considered to have P1 status. Non-aboriginal people who were born in the NWT or have resided half of their life there are considered a P2, as well as women and people with disabilities.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hr.gov.nt.ca/employment/affirmativeaction/ |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120803122042/http://www.hr.gov.nt.ca/employment/affirmativeaction/ |url-status=dead |archive-date=3 August 2012 |title=GNWT – Human Resources – Affirmative Action |publisher=Hr.gov.nt.ca |date=3 April 2012 |access-date=11 April 2012}}</ref>

==== United States ====
{{Main|Affirmative action in the United States}}
The United States' policy of affirmative action dates to the [[Reconstruction Era]] in the United States, 1863–1877.<ref name="Melvin 2020">Melvin I. Urofsky,  ''The Affirmative Action Puzzle: A Living History From Reconstruction to Today'' (2020).</ref>  Current policy was introduced in the early 1960s in the United States, as a way to combat [[racial discrimination]] in the hiring process, with the concept later expanded to address gender discrimination.<ref name="clinton2.nara.gov">{{cite web |date=19 July 1995 |title=Affirmative Action: History and Rationale |url=http://clinton2.nara.gov/WH/EOP/OP/html/aa/aa02.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110527065435/http://clinton2.nara.gov/WH/EOP/OP/html/aa/aa02.html |archive-date=27 May 2011 |access-date=6 December 2018 |publisher=Clinton Administration's Affirmative Action Review: Report to the President}}</ref> During this time, the legal and [[United States Constitution|constitutional]] legitimacy of affirmative action has been the subject of several court cases.<ref name="indystar.com">[http://www.indystar.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20080205/LOCAL/80205048 Indy fire-fighters sue city, charge bias; also see] [[Norma M. Riccucci]]. Managing Diversity in Public Sector Workforces. Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 2002</ref>

Affirmative action was first created from [[Executive Order 10925]], which was signed by President [[John F. Kennedy]] on 6 March 1961 and required that government employers "not discriminate against any employee or applicant for employment because of race, creed, color, or national origin" and "take affirmative action to ensure that applicants are employed and that employees are treated during employment, without regard to their race, creed, color, or national origin" but did not require or permit group preferences.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://shfg.org/shfg/wp-content/uploads/2011/01/4-MacLaury-design4-new_Layout-1.pdf|title=President Kennedy's E.O.10925: Seedbed of Affirmative Action|publisher=Society for History in the Federal Government|access-date=27 September 2015|archive-date=4 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304083942/http://shfg.org/shfg/wp-content/uploads/2011/01/4-MacLaury-design4-new_Layout-1.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web
| publisher = U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission
| title = Executive Order 10925 – Establishing The President's Committee on Equal Employment Opportunity
| url = http://www.eeoc.gov/eeoc/history/35th/thelaw/eo-10925.html
| access-date = 5 February 2010
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100527213307/http://www.eeoc.gov/eeoc/history/35th/thelaw/eo-10925.html
| archive-date = 27 May 2010
| url-status = dead
}}</ref>

On 24 September 1965, President [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] signed [[Executive Order 11246]], thereby replacing [[Executive Order 10925]], but continued to use the same terminology that did not require or permit group preferences.<ref name="The Federal Register">{{cite web |title=Executive Order 11246—Equal employment opportunity |url=https://www.archives.gov/federal-register/codification/executive-order/11246.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100330083544/http://www.archives.gov/federal-register/codification/executive-order/11246.html |archive-date=30 March 2010 |access-date=5 February 2010 |work=The Federal Register}}</ref> Affirmative action was extended to sex by [[Executive Order 11375]] which amended Executive Order 11246 on 13 October 1967, by adding "sex" to the list of protected categories. In the U.S. affirmative action's original purpose was to pressure institutions into compliance with the nondiscrimination mandate of the [[Civil Rights Act of 1964]].<ref name="Affirmative Action"/><ref>{{cite web|url=https://lcrm.lib.unc.edu/blog/index.php/2012/09/24/executive-order-11246-and-affirmative-action/|title=Executive Order 11246 and Affirmative Action « Publishing the Long Civil Rights Movement|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141019155311/https://lcrm.lib.unc.edu/blog/index.php/2012/09/24/executive-order-11246-and-affirmative-action/|archive-date=19 October 2014}}</ref> The Civil Rights Acts do not cover discrimination based on veteran status, disabilities, or age that is 40 years and older. These groups may be protected from discrimination under different laws.<ref name="EmployeeIssues.com">{{cite web|url=http://employeeissues.com/discrimination_laws.htm|title=Federal Employment Discrimination Laws|publisher=EmployeeIssues.com|access-date=18 May 2010}}</ref> 

Some colleges use financial criteria to attract racial groups that have typically been under-represented and typically have lower living conditions. Some states such as California ([[California Civil Rights Initiative]]), Michigan ([[Michigan Civil Rights Initiative]]), and Washington ([[Initiative 200]]) have passed constitutional amendments banning public institutions, including public schools, from practicing affirmative action within their respective states.<ref name="pew">{{cite web |last1=DeSilver |first1=Drew |title=Supreme Court says states can ban affirmative action; 8 already have |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2014/04/22/supreme-court-says-states-can-ban-affirmative-action-8-already-have/ |website=Pew Research Center |publisher=The Pew Charitable Trusts |access-date=24 October 2021 |date=22 April 2014}}</ref> 

Since the 1990s, conservative groups have increasingly suggested that college quotas have been used to illegally discriminate against people on the basis of race, and have launched numerous lawsuits to stop them.<ref>{{cite book|author=Steven M. Teles|title=The Rise of the Conservative Legal Movement: The Battle for Control of the Law|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MTps-NK20jAC&pg=PA235|year=2010|publisher=Princeton University Press|pages=235–37|isbn=978-1400829699}}</ref> In 2003, a Supreme Court decision regarding affirmative action in higher education (''[[Grutter v. Bollinger]]'', 539 US 244 – Supreme Court 2003) permitted educational institutions to consider race as a factor when admitting students.<ref name="Supct.law.cornell.edu">{{cite web |date=27 June 2002 |title=Highlights of the 2002–2003 Supreme Court Term |url=http://supct.law.cornell.edu/supct/03highlts.html#2 |access-date=1 September 2013 |publisher=Supct.law.cornell.edu}}</ref> In 2014, the U.S. Supreme Court held that "States may choose to prohibit the consideration of racial preferences in governmental decisions". By that time eight states, Oklahoma, New Hampshire, Arizona, Colorado, Nebraska, Michigan, Florida, Washington and California, had already banned affirmative action.<ref name="pew" /> On June 29, 2023, the Supreme Court ruled 6–2 that the use of race in college admissions is unconstitutional under the Equal Protection Clause of the 14th Amendment in ''[[Students for Fair Admissions v. Harvard]]''.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-06-29 |title=Supreme Court bans colleges from considering race in admissions |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/americas/supreme-court-strike-affirmative-action-university-b2366556.html |access-date=2025-02-27 |website=The Independent |language=en}}</ref>

=== Oceania ===

==== New Zealand ====
Individuals of [[Māori people|Māori]] or other [[Polynesia]]n descent are often afforded improved access to university courses, or have scholarships earmarked specifically for them. Such access to University courses have in the past faced criticism, particularly at the University of Auckland due to a phenomenon known as Mismatch theory, accusations of setting the kids up to fail have been made due to a lack of transparency as to the preferred groups graduation rates and the university informing the students of such historical statistics dating back to the 1970s.<ref>Sowell, T. (1990). Preferential policies: An international perspective. William Morrow and Company.</ref><ref name=cre>{{cite web|title=Affirmative action around the world|url=http://www.catalystmagazine.org/Default.aspx.LocID-0hgnew0l0.RefLocID-0hg01b001006009.Lang-EN.htm|work=Catalyst|publisher=Commission for Racial Equality|author=Commission for Racial Equality|author-link=Commission for Racial Equality|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070125034907/http://www.catalystmagazine.org/Default.aspx.LocID-0hgnew0l0.RefLocID-0hg01b001006009.Lang-EN.htm|archive-date=25 January 2007|date=29 September 2006}} [http://www.juliushonnor.com/catalyst/Default.aspx.LocID-0hgnew0l0.RefLocID-0hg01b001006009.Lang-EN.htm Alt URL] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161014071745/http://www.juliushonnor.com/catalyst/Default.aspx.LocID-0hgnew0l0.RefLocID-0hg01b001006009.Lang-EN.htm |date=14 October 2016 }}</ref> 

Affirmative action is provided for under section 73 of the [[Human Rights Act 1993]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.legislation.govt.nz/act/public/1993/0082/latest/DLM304672.html |title=Human Rights Act 1993 No 82 (as of 1 July 2013), Public Act 73 Measures to ensure equality – New Zealand Legislation |publisher=Legislation.govt.nz |date=1 July 2013 |access-date=1 September 2013}}</ref> and section 19(2) of the New Zealand Bill of Rights Act 1990.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.legislation.govt.nz/act/public/1990/0109/latest/DLM225519.html |title=New Zealand Bill of Rights Act 1990 No 109 (as of 1 July 2013), Public Act 19 Freedom from discrimination – New Zealand Legislation |publisher=Legislation.govt.nz |date=1 July 2013 |access-date=1 September 2013}}</ref> Affirmative action in New Zealand is most often done indirecttly by encouraging those in groups favored by affirmative action to get jobs in sectors they are underrepresented in.<ref name=":6">{{Cite web |date=2022-04-13 |title=Is positive discrimination lawful in New Zealand? |url=https://www.laneneave.co.nz/news-events/is-positive-discrimination-lawful-in-new-zealand/ |access-date=2023-11-26 |website=Lane Neave |language=en-US}}</ref> Diversity Awards NZ is an organization in New Zealand whose goal is to " celebrate excellence in workplace diversity, equity and inclusion."<ref>{{Cite web |last=DiversityWorks |title=Diversity Awards NZ™ |url=https://diversityworksnz.org.nz/diversity-awards-nz/ |access-date=2023-11-26 |website=DiversityWorks |language=en-nz}}</ref>

Under section 73 of the Human Rights Act 1993, affirmative action would be permissible if:<ref name=":6" />

# Done in good faith;
# For the purpose of assisting individuals or groups with a characteristic pertaining to a prohibited ground of discrimination; and
# The individuals or groups in question need (or may reasonably be supposed to need) assistance in order to achieve an equal place with other members of the community.

=== South America ===

==== Brazil ====
{{Further|Vestibular exam#Racial quotas}}

Some Brazilian universities (state and federal) have created systems of preferred admissions (quotas) for racial minorities (blacks and Amerindians), the poor and people with disabilities. There are also quotas of up to 20% of vacancies reserved for people with disabilities in the civil public services.<ref>{{cite web|last =Plummer|first= Robert|url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/5357842.stm |title = Black Brazil Seeks a Better Future|work = BBC News|location = São Paulo|date= 25 September 2006}}</ref> The [[Democrats (Brazil)|Democrats]] party, accusing the board of directors of the [[University of Brasília]] for "resurrecting Nazist ideals", appealed to the [[Supreme Federal Court]] against the [[constitutionality]] of the quotas the university reserves for minorities.<ref>{{cite web|author=Por Rodrigo Haidar e Filipe Coutinho |url=http://www.conjur.com.br/2009-jul-20/dem-unb-ressuscitou-ideais-nazistas-suspensao-matriculas |title=DEM entra com ADPF contra cotas raciais |date=20 July 2009 |language=pt |publisher= Conjur.com.br |access-date=11 April 2012}}</ref> The Supreme Court unanimously approved their constitutionality on 26 April 2012.<ref>{{cite web | author= Débora Santos |url =http://g1.globo.com/vestibular-e-educacao/noticia/2012/04/stf-decide-por-unanimidade-pela-constitucionalidade-das-cotas-raciais.html | title=Supremo decide pro unanimidade pela constiucionalidade das cotas |language=pt| publisher=g1.globo.com | access-date=3 June 2012|date =26 April 2012 }}</ref>