Editing Alebrije (section)

=== Development of the craft in Oaxaca ===
[[File:DSC 0020-FIXButterfly man front view.jpg|thumb|Butterfly man by Francisca Calva of Oaxaca]]
Many rural households in the Mexican state of Oaxaca have prospered over the past three decades through the sale of brightly painted, whimsical wood carvings they call alebrijes to international tourists and the owners of ethnic arts shops in the United States, Canada, and Europe.<ref name="chibnik" /> What are called "alebrijes" in Oaxaca is a marriage of native woodcarving traditions and influence from Pedro Linares' work in Mexico City.<ref name="shinnaa">{{cite news |title= Concluye el Tercer Festival SHIN NAA LASN, "El arte del Pueblo", en San Martin Tilcajete  |url= http://www.e-consulta.com/oaxaca/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=11689&Itemid=27 |newspaper=e-consulta |location=Oaxaca |date=November 4, 2009 |access-date=April 12, 2010 |language=es |trans-title=Third Festival Shin Naa Lasn (Art of the Village) concludes in San Martin Tilcajete }}</ref>

Pedro Linares was originally from México City (Distrito Federal). In the 1980s, British filmmaker, Judith Bronowski, arranged an itinerant demonstration workshop in the United States participating [[Pedro Linares]], [[Manuel Jiménez (artist)|Manuel Jiménez]] and a textile artisan Maria Sabina from Oaxaca. Although the Oaxaca valley area already had a history of carving animal and other types of figures from wood, it was at this time, when Bronowski's workshop took place when artisans from Oaxaca knew the alebrijes papier-mâché sculptures.

Then Linares' designs were adapted to the carving of a local wood called [[Bursera glabrifolia|copal]]. The Oaxaca valley area already had a history of carving animal and other types of figures from wood, and Linares' designs were adapted to the carving of a local wood called [[Bursera glabrifolia|copal]]. This adaptation was pioneered by Arrazola native [[Manuel Jiménez (artist)|Manuel Jiménez]]. This version of the craft has since spread to a number of other towns, most notably [[San Martín Tilcajete]] and [[La Unión Tejalapan]], become a major source of income for the area, especially for Tilcajete. Given the scale of success with alebrijes, populations of native copal trees have decreased over the years. Efforts through reforestation and the management of the trees have yet to create any significant growth in population. The three towns most closely associated with alebrije production in Oaxaca have produced a number of notable artisans such as Manuel Jiménez, Jacobo Angeles, Martin Sandiego, Julia Fuentes and Miguel Sandiego.

One of the most important things about the fantastical creatures carved of wood is that every piece is removable, it is how one can tell a genuine piece carved by one of the original great carvers. The later carvers did not learn the technique of making each piece fit so well that it could be removed and put back in again and again. Those pieces have more than tripled in value. The painting on these figures is also more intense and varied.
The first to copy the fantastic forms and bright colors was Manuel Jiménez, who carved the figures in local copal wood rather than using paper.<ref name="ohernandez">{{cite web |url= http://www.mexicodesconocido.com.mx/notas/3939-San-Mart%EDn-Tilcajete-y-sus-alebrijes-%28Oaxaca%29 |title= San Martín Tilcajete y sus alebrijes (Oaxaca) |first= Octavio |last= Hernández Espejo |publisher=Mexico Desconocido magazine |location=Mexico City |language=es |access-date=April 17, 2010 }}</ref> Animal figures had always been carved in the central valleys area of Oaxaca by the Zapotecs since the pre-Hispanic period. Totems of local animals were carved for luck or religious purposes as well as hunting decoys. Figures were also carved for children as toys, a tradition that continued well into the 20th century.<ref name="jacobo">{{cite web |url= http://www.mexconnect.com/articles/2999-jacobo-angeles-a-rich-wood-carving-tradition-in-oaxaca-dating-to-pre-hispanic-times |title= Jacobo Angeles: A rich wood-carving tradition in Oaxaca, dating to pre-Hispanic times |first=Alvin |last=Starkman |publisher=MexConnect |access-date=April 17, 2010 }}</ref>

After the craft became popular in Arrazola, it spread to Tilcajete and from there to a number of other communities, and now the three main communities are, San Antonino Arrazola, San Martin Tilcajete and La Union Tejalapam, each of which has developed its own style.<ref name="ohernandez" /><ref name="cunningham148">{{cite book |title= Carving out a future: forests, livelihoods and the international woodcarving ... |last= Cunningham |first= A. B. |author2= Bruce Morgan Campbell |author3=Brian Murray Belcher |year=2005 |publisher= Earthscan |location=Sterling, VA |isbn=1-84407-045-X |page=148 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xKNPx6ahJkAC&q=alebrijes&pg=PA147 |access-date=April 17, 2010}}</ref> The carving of wood figures did not have a name,<ref name="ohernandez" />  so the name "alebrije" eventually became adopted for any carved, brightly colored figure of copal wood, whether it is of a real animal or not.<ref name="advertising">{{cite journal |last= Chibnik |first=Michael  |date=Winter 2008 |title= Advertising Oaxacan Woodcarvings |journal=Human Organization|volume=67 |issue=4 |pages=362–373 |location=Washington, DC |doi=10.17730/humo.67.4.r9278237u6104840 }}</ref><ref name="mniches">{{cite journal |last= Chibnik |first=Michael  |date=Summer 2000 |title= The evolution of market niches in Oaxacan woodcarving |journal=Ethnology |volume=39 |issue=3 |pages=225–243 |location=Pittsburgh |doi= 10.2307/3774108 |jstor= 3774108 }}</ref> To make the distinction, the carvings of fantastic creatures, closer to Linares' alebrijes, are now sometimes called "marcianos" (lit. [[Martian]]s).<ref name="mniches" /> Oaxacan alebrijes have eclipsed the Mexico City version, with a large number of stores in and around the city of Oaxaca selling the pieces,<ref name="mmartinez">{{cite news |title= Craft is part of village life in Oaxacan region |first=Michael |last=Martinez |url= http://www.mercurynews.com/mexico-more/ci_5757092 |newspaper=Mercury News |location=San José, CA |date=April 26, 2007 |access-date=April 17, 2010  }}</ref> and it is estimated that more than 150 families in the same area make a living making the figures.<ref name="jacobo" />

Woodcarving, along with other crafts in Oaxaca, grew in importance as the state opened up to tourism. This started in the 1940s with the [[Pan-American Highway]] and has continued to this day with the construction of more roads, airports and other transportation coincided with the rising prosperity of the U.S. and Canada making Mexico an affordable exotic vacation. Oaxacan woodcarving began to be bought in the 1960s by [[hippie]]s.<ref name="jacobo" /> Prior to the 1980s, most of the woodcarvings were natural and spiritual world of the communities, featuring farm animals, [[farmer]]s, [[angel]]s and the like.<ref name="chibnik">{{cite journal |last=Chibnik |first=Michael |author2=Silvia Purata |date=March 2007 |title=Conserving copalillo: The creation of sustainable Oaxacan wood carvings |journal= Agriculture and Human Values |volume=24 |issue=1 |pages=17–29 |location=Gainesville, FL |doi=10.1007/s10460-006-9033-1 |s2cid=154539287 }}</ref> These pieces, now referred to as "rustic" (nistico), were carved and painted in a simple manner.<ref name="mniches" /> Later known for their alebrijes, carvers such as Manuel Jimenez of Arrazola, Isadoro Cruz of Tilcajete and Martin Sandiego of La Union began by carving animals as youths, often while doing other chores such as tending sheep. By the 1960s and 1970s, these carvers had enough of a reputation to sell their work in the city of Oaxaca.<ref name="cunningham148" /> As more dealers shipping to other parts of Mexico and abroad visited the rural villages, more exotic animals such as lions, elephants and the like were added, and eventually came to dominate the trade.<ref name="ohernandez" /><ref name="mniches" /> Eventually, traditional paints gave way to acrylics as well.<ref name="mniches" /> Another development that encouraged woodcarving were artisans' contests held by the state of Oaxaca in the 1970s, which encouraged carvers to try new ideas in order to win prizes and sell their pieces to state museums.<ref name="mniches" />

[[File:Manueljimenez.jpg|thumb|Manuel Jimenez with one of his creations]]
In the 1970s and early 1980s, carvers in the three villages sold  pieces mostly to store owners in Oaxaca, with only one carver, [[Manuel Jiménez Ramírez|Manuel Jimenez]], carving full-time. Most other carvers used the craft to supplement incomes from farming and wage labor. It was also considered to be a male occupation.<ref name="mniches" /> In the mid-1980s, the influence of the Linares alebrijes was becoming popular and wholesalers and store owners from the United States, began to deal with artisans in Oaxaca directly. The desire of the foreign merchants for non-indigenous animals and the newly popular alebrijes affected the market.<ref name="ohernandez" /><ref name="mniches" /> By 1990, woodcarving had begun to boom with most households in Arrazola and Tilcajete earning at least part of their income from the craft. La Union was less successful in attracting dealers and tourists.<ref name="mniches" /> The boom had a dramatic economic effect, shifting the economies of Arrazola and Tilcajete away from farming and towards carving.<ref name="advertising" /> It also affected the carvings that were being produced. Carvings became more complicated and paintings more ornate as families competed against each other.<ref name="chibnik" />  Specialization also occurred with neophyte carvers looking for a niche to compete with already established carvers.<ref name="mniches" /> The craft continued to become established in the 1990s as more families carved and more tourists came to Oaxaca with the building of new roads.<ref name="jacobo" /> Some of these new Oaxacan crafters have extended the design to smooth – abstract painted realistic animals, especially the Mendoza family (Luis Pablo, David Pablo and Moises Pablo a.k.a. Ariel Playas), creating a new generation of alebrijes.

While the sales trend has been mostly positive for Oaxacan alebrijes, it is dependent on global market fluctuations and on tourism to Oaxaca.<ref name="amenazada" /> There was a decline in sales in the late 1980s, possibly due to global market saturation and the dominance of repetitive, unimaginative designs. Sales rose again in the 1990s.<ref name="ohernandez" /> Sales fell again in 2001, when tourism from the U.S. fell<ref name="amenazada" /> and fell again precipitously [[2006 Oaxaca protests|2006 due to statewide social unrest]]. It has not fully recovered since.<ref name="advertising" />

The alebrije market is divided into two levels, the production of unique, high-quality, labor-intensive pieces and the production of repetitive, average quality and inexpensive pieces. Those who have produced exceptionally fine pieces have gained reputations as artists, commanding high prices.<ref name="serrano">{{cite web|url=http://www.ehs.unu.edu/file.php?id=180 |title=The phenomenon of migration in San Martín Tilcajete, Oaxaca. A qualitative and gender sensitive women- focused reading of some of the dimensions of vulnerability on site. |first=S. Eréndira |last=Serrano Oswald |date=July 2008 |publisher=United Nations University Institute for Environment and Human Security |location=Bonn, Germany |access-date=April 17, 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070611171701/http://www.ehs.unu.edu/file.php?id=180 |archive-date=June 11, 2007 }}</ref> Larger pieces are generally made only by the better carving families.<ref name="mniches" /> While pieces can be bought and ordered from the artisans directly, most sell to middlemen who in turn sell them to outlets in Mexico and abroad.<ref name="amenazada" /> The most successful carving families sell almost exclusively to dealers and may have only a few pieces available for the drop-in visitor.<ref name="cunningham157">{{cite book |title= Carving out a future: forests, livelihoods and the international woodcarving ... |last= Cunningham |first= A. B. |author2= Bruce Morgan Campbell |author3=Brian Murray Belcher |year=2005 |publisher= Earthscan |location=Sterling, VA |isbn=1-84407-045-X |page=157 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xKNPx6ahJkAC&q=alebrijes&pg=PA147 |access-date=April 17, 2010}}</ref>  Within Mexico, Oaxacan alebrijes are often sold in tourist locations such as [[Oaxaca, Oaxaca|Oaxaca city]], [[La Paz, Baja California Sur|La Paz]], [[Cancún]], [[Cozumel]] and [[Puerto Escondido, Oaxaca|Puerto Escondido]].<ref name="ohernandez" /> Most pieces sold internationally go to the United States, Canada, Europe and Japan, where the most expensive pieces end up in ethnic craft stores in urban areas, university towns and upscale resorts.<ref name="chibnik" /><ref name="ohernandez" /><ref name="cunningham147">{{cite book |title= Carving out a future: forests, livelihoods and the international woodcarving ... |last= Cunningham |first= A. B. |author2= Bruce Morgan Campbell|author3=Brian Murray Belcher |year=2005 |publisher= Earthscan |location=Sterling, VA |isbn=1-84407-045-X |page=147 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xKNPx6ahJkAC&q=alebrijes&pg=PA147 |access-date=April 17, 2010}}</ref> Cheaper pieces tend to be sold at trade shows and gift shops.<ref name="chibnik" /> Tourists who buy pieces directly from carvers pay about twice what wholesalers do.<ref name="cunningham156">{{cite book |title= Carving out a future: forests, livelihoods and the international woodcarving ... |last= Cunningham |first= A. B. |author2= Bruce Morgan Campbell |author3=Brian Murray Belcher |year=2005 |publisher= Earthscan |location=Sterling, VA |isbn=1-84407-045-X |page=156 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xKNPx6ahJkAC&q=alebrijes&pg=PA147 |access-date=April 17, 2010}}</ref>

The price of each piece depends on the quality, coloring, size, originality and sometimes the reputation of the carver. The most expensive pieces are most often sent abroad.<ref name="ohernandez" /> Pieces sold retail in Oaxaca generally range from US$1 to $200.<ref name="cunningham157" /> The most commercialized figures are those of [[dog]]s, [[armadillo]]s, [[iguana]]s, [[giraffe]]s, [[cat]]s, [[elephant]]s, [[zebra]]s, [[deer]], [[dolphin]]s, [[shark]]s, and [[fish]].<ref name="ohernandez" /> Animals are often painted with bright colors and designs and carved with exaggerated features that bear little resemblance to what occurs in the natural world. Anthropomorphism is common and carvings of animals playing musical instruments, golfing, fishing, and engaging in other human pursuits are very popular.<ref name="mniches" />

Fantastic creatures such as dragons and chimeras and others are also carved,<ref name="ohernandez" /> even carvings of [[Benito Juárez]], [[Subcomandante Marcos]], [[chupacabra]]s (imaginary beings that eat [[goat]]s), "Martians," [[mermaid]]s, and [[Hippocampus (mythology)|hippocampus]].

The diversity of the figures is due to a segmented market both in Mexico and abroad which rewards novelty and specialization.<ref name="mniches" /> In a number of cases, carvings return to images from Mexican culture such as [[angel]]s, saints, and [[Virgin Mary|Virgins]], which will have somber faces even if they are painted in very bright colors. [[Devil]]s and [[Skeleton (undead)|skeleton]]s are often parts of more festive scenes depicting them, for example, riding dogs and drinking.<ref name="mniches" /> Foreign customers demand more creative figures with little repetition. Prices abroad range from between three and five times the retail price in Oaxaca, with a median of US$100, with lowest usually around $10 and highest around $2,000.<ref name="advertising" />  One of the most expensive pieces sold from a carving village occurred in 1995, when a doctor from Mexico City paid Isidro Cruz of Tilcajete the equivalent of US$3000 for a piece entitled "Carousel of the Americas." This piece took Cruz three months to complete.<ref name="mniches" />
[[File:Alebrije mexicano.png|thumb|Contemporary Mexican Alebrije]]
Typical household income of families from Arrazola and Tilcajete averages about US$2000 per year, but exceptional artists can earn up to $20,000 per year.<ref name="cunningham157" /><ref name="cunningham147" /> Two thousand a year is substantially more than average in Oaxaca and allows families to build or expand housing and send children to secondary school.  Most families carve as a sideline with agriculture providing basic staples.<ref name="cunningham157" /> In some towns, especially in Tilcajete, the economy has shifted from agriculture to the making of wood carvings with a number of families abandoning farming altogether.<ref name="ohernandez" /> For most households in Oaxaca, the success of alebrijes has not replaced the need to farm or alleviated the need to send family members to Mexico City or to the United States and work and send remittances back home.<ref name="amenazada" /><ref name="cunningham148" />

Despite Oaxaca's reputation for the production of crafts by indigenous peoples, alebrije makers are monolingual Spanish speakers who generally do not identify themselves as a member of an indigenous group, though almost all have [[Zapotec peoples|Zapotec]] ancestors. The alebrijes are considered to be novelty items for the makers rather than expressions of a cultural heritage.<ref name="chibnik" /><ref name="cunningham148" /> More traditional woodcarving, such as utensils, toys, religious figures and the like are still made by older residents, but these crafts are overshadowed by alebrijes.<ref name="ohernandez" /> Approximately 150 families now devote themselves at least part-time to the making of alebrijes, with carving techniques being passed down from generation to generation and many children growing up around fantastic figures both finished and in process.<ref name="ohernandez" />

Due to copies from other places, a certification scheme is being considered to ensure the viability of crafts from this area. That would include educating consumers and working with reputable stores.<ref name="cunningham158">{{cite book |title= Carving out a future: forests, livelihoods and the international woodcarving ... |last= Cunningham |first= A. B. |author2= Bruce Morgan Campbell |author3=Brian Murray Belcher |year=2005 |publisher= Earthscan |location=Sterling, VA |isbn=1-84407-045-X |page=158 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xKNPx6ahJkAC&q=alebrijes&pg=PA147 |access-date=April 17, 2010}}</ref>