Editing Artificial neuron (section)

==Physical artificial cells==
There is research and development into physical artificial neurons – organic and inorganic.

For example, some artificial neurons can receive<ref name="knowablemagazineorganic">{{cite news |last1=Kleiner |first1=Kurt |title=Making computer chips act more like brain cells |url=https://knowablemagazine.org/article/technology/2022/making-computer-chips-act-more-like-brain-cells |access-date=23 September 2022 |journal=Knowable Magazine |date=25 August 2022 |language=en |doi=10.1146/knowable-082422-1}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Keene |first1=Scott T. |last2=Lubrano |first2=Claudia |last3=Kazemzadeh |first3=Setareh |last4=Melianas |first4=Armantas |last5=Tuchman |first5=Yaakov |last6=Polino |first6=Giuseppina |last7=Scognamiglio |first7=Paola |last8=Cinà |first8=Lucio |last9=Salleo |first9=Alberto |last10=van de Burgt |first10=Yoeri |last11=Santoro |first11=Francesca |title=A biohybrid synapse with neurotransmitter-mediated plasticity |journal=Nature Materials |date=September 2020 |volume=19 |issue=9 |pages=969–973 |doi=10.1038/s41563-020-0703-y |pmid=32541935 |bibcode=2020NatMa..19..969K |s2cid=219691307 |language=en |issn=1476-4660|url=https://research.tue.nl/nl/publications/ad3d2f99-23e6-4072-934d-2b058d800e42 }}
* University press release: {{cite news |title=Researchers develop artificial synapse that works with living cells |url=https://medicalxpress.com/news/2020-06-artificial-synapse-cells.html |access-date=23 September 2022 |work=Stanford University via medicalxpress.com |language=en}}</ref> and release [[dopamine]] ([[neurotransmitter|chemical signals]] rather than electrical signals) and communicate with natural rat [[soft robot|muscle]] and [[brain cell]]s, with potential for use in [[brain–computer interface|BCIs]]/[[Wetware computer#Future applications|prosthetics]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Artificial neuron swaps dopamine with rat brain cells like a real one |url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/2332554-artificial-neuron-swaps-dopamine-with-rat-brain-cells-like-a-real-one/ |access-date=16 September 2022 |work=New Scientist}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wang |first1=Ting |last2=Wang |first2=Ming |last3=Wang |first3=Jianwu |last4=Yang |first4=Le |last5=Ren |first5=Xueyang |last6=Song |first6=Gang |last7=Chen |first7=Shisheng |last8=Yuan |first8=Yuehui |last9=Liu |first9=Ruiqing |last10=Pan |first10=Liang |last11=Li |first11=Zheng |last12=Leow |first12=Wan Ru |last13=Luo |first13=Yifei |last14=Ji |first14=Shaobo |last15=Cui |first15=Zequn |last16=He |first16=Ke |last17=Zhang |first17=Feilong |last18=Lv |first18=Fengting |last19=Tian |first19=Yuanyuan |last20=Cai |first20=Kaiyu |last21=Yang |first21=Bowen |last22=Niu |first22=Jingyi |last23=Zou |first23=Haochen |last24=Liu |first24=Songrui |last25=Xu |first25=Guoliang |last26=Fan |first26=Xing |last27=Hu |first27=Benhui |last28=Loh |first28=Xian Jun |last29=Wang |first29=Lianhui |last30=Chen |first30=Xiaodong |title=A chemically mediated artificial neuron |journal=Nature Electronics |date=8 August 2022 |volume=5 |issue=9 |pages=586–595 |doi=10.1038/s41928-022-00803-0 |hdl=10356/163240 |s2cid=251464760 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/362561968 |language=en |issn=2520-1131|url-access=subscription|hdl-access=free }}</ref>

Low-power biocompatible [[memristor]]s may enable construction of artificial neurons which function at voltages of biological [[action potential]]s and could be used to directly process [[Biosensor|biosensing signals]], for [[neuromorphic computing]] and/or [[brain–computer interface|direct communication with biological neurons]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Scientists create tiny devices that work like the human brain |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/gadgets-and-tech/news/brain-computing-memory-artificial-synapse-memristor-a9473671.html |access-date=May 17, 2020 |work=The Independent |date=April 20, 2020 |language=en |archive-date=April 24, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200424110621/https://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/gadgets-and-tech/news/brain-computing-memory-artificial-synapse-memristor-a9473671.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Researchers unveil electronics that mimic the human brain in efficient learning |url=https://phys.org/news/2020-04-unveil-electronics-mimic-human-brain.html |access-date=May 17, 2020 |work=phys.org |language=en |archive-date=May 28, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200528112833/https://phys.org/news/2020-04-unveil-electronics-mimic-human-brain.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Fu |first1=Tianda |last2=Liu |first2=Xiaomeng |last3=Gao |first3=Hongyan |last4=Ward |first4=Joy E. |last5=Liu |first5=Xiaorong |last6=Yin |first6=Bing |last7=Wang |first7=Zhongrui |last8=Zhuo |first8=Ye |last9=Walker |first9=David J. F. |last10=Joshua Yang |first10=J. |last11=Chen |first11=Jianhan |last12=Lovley |first12=Derek R. |last13=Yao |first13=Jun |title=Bioinspired bio-voltage memristors |journal=Nature Communications |date=April 20, 2020 |volume=11 |issue=1 |page=1861 |doi=10.1038/s41467-020-15759-y |pmid=32313096 |pmc=7171104 |bibcode=2020NatCo..11.1861F |doi-access=free }}</ref>

Organic neuromorphic circuits made out of [[polymer]]s, coated with an ion-rich gel to enable a material to carry an electric charge like [[neuron|real neurons]], have been built into a robot, enabling it to learn sensorimotorically within the real world, rather than via simulations or virtually.<ref name="sciame">{{cite news |last1=Bolakhe |first1=Saugat |title=Lego Robot with an Organic 'Brain' Learns to Navigate a Maze |url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/lego-robot-with-an-organic-brain-learns-to-navigate-a-maze/ |access-date=1 February 2022 |work=Scientific American |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Krauhausen |first1=Imke |last2=Koutsouras |first2=Dimitrios A. |last3=Melianas |first3=Armantas |last4=Keene |first4=Scott T. |last5=Lieberth |first5=Katharina |last6=Ledanseur |first6=Hadrien |last7=Sheelamanthula |first7=Rajendar |last8=Giovannitti |first8=Alexander |last9=Torricelli |first9=Fabrizio |last10=Mcculloch |first10=Iain |last11=Blom |first11=Paul W. M. |last12=Salleo |first12=Alberto |last13=Burgt |first13=Yoeri van de |last14=Gkoupidenis |first14=Paschalis |title=Organic neuromorphic electronics for sensorimotor integration and learning in robotics |journal=Science Advances |date=December 2021 |volume=7 |issue=50 |pages=eabl5068 |doi=10.1126/sciadv.abl5068 |pmid=34890232 |pmc=8664264 |bibcode=2021SciA....7.5068K |hdl=10754/673986 |s2cid=245046482 |language=EN}}</ref> Moreover, artificial spiking neurons made of soft matter (polymers) can operate in biologically relevant environments and enable the synergetic communication between the artificial and biological domains.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Sarkar |first1=Tanmoy |last2=Lieberth |first2=Katharina |last3=Pavlou |first3=Aristea |last4=Frank |first4=Thomas |last5=Mailaender |first5=Volker |last6=McCulloch |first6=Iain |last7=Blom |first7=Paul W. M. |last8=Torriccelli |first8=Fabrizio |last9=Gkoupidenis |first9=Paschalis |title=An organic artificial spiking neuron for in situ neuromorphic sensing and biointerfacing |journal=Nature Electronics |date=7 November 2022 |volume=5 |issue=11 |pages=774–783 |doi=10.1038/s41928-022-00859-y |s2cid=253413801 |language=en |issn=2520-1131|doi-access=free |hdl=10754/686016 |hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=Artificial neurons emulate biological counterparts to enable synergetic operation |journal=Nature Electronics |date=10 November 2022 |volume=5 |issue=11 |pages=721–722 |doi=10.1038/s41928-022-00862-3 |s2cid=253469402 |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41928-022-00862-3 |language=en |issn=2520-1131|url-access=subscription }}</ref>