Editing Automaton (section)

===Renaissance and early modern===
[[File:Horlogerie-Musée des Arts décoratifs de Strasbourg (1).jpg|thumb|First Strasbourg clock rooster, worked from 1352 to 1789.]]
[[File:Cuckoo strikes the 8th hour.ogv|thumb|right|A [[cuckoo clock]] with a built-in automaton of a [[cuckoo]] that flaps its wings and opens its beak in time to the sounds of the cuckoo call to mark the number of hours on the analogue dial]]
The [[Renaissance]] witnessed a considerable revival of interest in automata. Hero's treatises were edited and translated into Latin and Italian. Hydraulic and pneumatic automata, similar to those described by Hero, were created for garden [[grotto]]es.

[[Giovanni Fontana (engineer)|Giovanni Fontana]], a [[Padua]]n engineer in 1420, developed ''Bellicorum instrumentorum liber''{{efn| Full title: ''Bellicorum instrumentorum liber, cum figuris et fictitys litoris conscriptus'', Latin for "Illustrated and encrypted book of war instruments"<ref>{{cite web|title=''Bellicorum Instrumentorum Liber'' {{!}} The Faith of a Heretic|url=http://www.krauselabs.net/writings/bellicorum-instrumentorum-liber/|website=www.krauselabs.net|date=5 November 2015 |access-date=23 November 2016}}</ref>}} which includes a puppet of a [[camelidae|camelid]] driven by a clothed primate twice the height of a human being and an automaton of Mary Magdalene.<ref>{{cite book|editor-last=Riskin|editor-first=Jessica|title=Genesis Redux: Essays in the History and Philosophy of Artificial Life|date=2007|publisher=University of Chicago Press|location=Chicago [u.a.]|isbn=9780226720807|edition=[Online-Ausg.].}}</ref> He also created mechanical devils and rocket-propelled animal automata.<ref>{{Citation |last=Grafton |first=Anthony |title=The Devil as Automaton |date=2007 |work=Genesis Redux |pages=46–62 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.7208/chicago/9780226720838.003.0003 |access-date=2024-02-18 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |doi=10.7208/chicago/9780226720838.003.0003 |isbn=978-0-226-72081-4|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Battisti |first1=Eugenio |title=Le macchine cifrate di Giovanni Fontana: con la riproduzione del Cod. icon. 242 della Bayerische Staatsbibliothek di Monaco di Baviera e la decrittazione di esso e del Cod. lat. nouv. acq. 635 della Bibliothèque nationale di Parigi |last2=Saccaro Del Buffa Battisti |first2=Giuseppa |last3=Fontana |first3=Giovanni |date=1984 |publisher=Arcadia Edizioni |isbn=978-88-85684-06-5 |location=Milano}}</ref>

[[File:Statues on Prague Astronomical Clock 2014-01 (landscape mode) 3.jpg|thumb|Bell-ringing Death on [[Prague astronomical clock]]]]
While functional, early clocks were also often designed as novelties and spectacles which integrated features of automata. Many big and complex clocks with automated figures were built as public spectacles in European [[town centre]]s. One of the earliest of these large clocks was the [[Strasbourg astronomical clock]], built in the 14th century which takes up the entire side of a cathedral wall. It contained an astronomical calendar, automata depicting animals, saints and the life of Christ. The mechanical rooster of Strasbourg clock was active from 1352 to 1789.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Ungerer |date=1921 |title=L'Horloge Astronomique de la Cathedrale de Strasbourg. |journal=L'Astronomie |volume=35 |pages=89–102|bibcode=1921LAstr..35...89U }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |title=1921LAstr..35...89U Page 91 |url=https://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu//full/1921LAstr..35...89U/0000095.000.html |access-date=2024-02-19 |journal=L'Astronomie|bibcode=1921LAstr..35...89U |last1=Ungerer |first1=Alfred |author2=La Redaction |date=1921 |volume=35 |page=89 }}</ref> The clock still functions to this day, but has undergone several restorations since its initial construction. The [[Prague astronomical clock]] was built in 1410, animated figures were added from the 17th century onwards.<ref name="realhistory">{{cite web | url=http://roborobotics.com/Animatronics/history-of-animatronics.html | title=The Real History of Animatronics | publisher=Rogers Studios | access-date=August 4, 2014}}</ref> Numerous clockwork automata were manufactured in the 16th century, principally by the goldsmiths of the [[Free imperial city|Free Imperial Cities]] of central Europe. These wondrous devices found a home in the [[cabinet of curiosities]] or ''Wunderkammern'' of the princely courts of Europe.

In 1454, [[Philip the Good|Duke Philip]] created an entertainment show named ''The extravagant [[Feast of the Pheasant]]'', which was intended to influence the Duke's peers to participate in a crusade against the Ottomans but ended up being a grand display of automata, giants, and dwarves.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Bowles|first1=Edmund A.|title=Instruments at the Court of Burgundy (1363–1467)|journal=The Galpin Society Journal|date=1953|volume=6|pages=41–51|doi=10.2307/841716|jstor=841716}}</ref>

A banquet in Camilla of Aragon's honor in Italy, 1475, featured a lifelike automated camel.<ref name="Sill2000">{{cite journal |last1=Sill |first1=Christina Rose |date=2013-04-10 |title=A Survey of Androids and Audiences: 285 BCE to the Present Day |url=http://summit.sfu.ca/system/files/iritems1/12906/etd7811_CSill.pdf |journal=Summit Research Repository |publisher=Simon Fraser University |pages=1, 16}}</ref> The spectacle was a part of a larger parade which continued over days.

[[Leonardo da Vinci]] sketched a complex mechanical knight, which he may have built and exhibited at a celebration hosted by [[Ludovico Sforza]] at the court of Milan around 1495. The design of [[Leonardo's robot]] was not rediscovered until the 1950s. A functional replica was later built that could move its arms, twist its head, and sit up.<ref name="nih">{{cite journal |title = The da Vinci robot|journal = J. Endourol.|volume = 20|issue = 12|pages = 986–90|quote = ... the date of the design and possible construction of this robot was 1495 ... Beginning in the 1950s, investigators at the University of California began to ponder the significance of some of da Vinci's markings on what appeared to be technical drawings ... It is now known that da Vinci's robot would have had the outer appearance of a Germanic knight.|pmid = 17206888|doi = 10.1089/end.2006.20.986|date = December 2006|last1 = Moran|first1 = M. E.}}
</ref>

Da Vinci is frequently credited with constructing a mechanical [[lion]], which he presented to [[Francis I of France|King Francois I]] in [[Lyon]] in 1515. Although no record of the device's original designs remain, a recreation of this piece is housed at the [[Clos Lucé|Château du Clos Lucé]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-france-davinci-lion/da-vincis-lion-prowls-again-after-500-years-idUSTRE57D1MQ20090814|title=Da Vinci's lion prowls again after 500 years|last=Shirbon|first=Estelle|date=August 14, 2009|work=Reuters|access-date=April 12, 2019}}</ref>

The [[Smithsonian Institution]] has in its collection a clockwork monk, about {{convert|15|in|abbr=on}} high, possibly dating as early as 1560. The monk is driven by a key-wound spring and walks the path of a square, striking his chest with his right arm, while raising and lowering a small wooden cross and rosary in his left hand, turning and nodding his head, rolling his eyes, and mouthing silent obsequies. From time to time, he brings the cross to his lips and kisses it. It is believed that the monk was manufactured by [[Juanelo Turriano]], mechanician to the [[Holy Roman Emperor]] [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles V]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Clockwork Prayer: Introduction, Elizabeth King |url=https://blackbird-archive.vcu.edu/v1n1/nonfiction/king_e/prayer_introduction.htm |access-date=2024-01-25 |website=blackbird-archive.vcu.edu}}</ref>

The first description of a modern [[cuckoo clock]] was by the [[Augsburg]] nobleman [[Philipp Hainhofer]] in 1629.<ref name=cuckoo>{{cite book|last1=Molesworth|title=The Cuckoo Clock|date=1914|publisher=JB Lippincott Company|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ut81AQAAMAAJ|access-date=10 August 2014}}</ref> The clock belonged to Prince Elector [[August, Elector of Saxony|August von Sachsen]]. By 1650, the workings of mechanical cuckoos were understood and were widely disseminated in [[Athanasius Kircher]]'s handbook on music, ''[[Musurgia Universalis]]''. In what is the first documented description of how a mechanical cuckoo works, a mechanical organ with several automated figures is described.<ref>{{cite book|first1=Athanasius |last1=Kircher |title=Musurgia Universalis sive Ars magna consoni & dissoni |location=Rome |date=1650 |volume=2 |page=343f and Plate XXI}}</ref> In 18th-century Germany, clockmakers began making cuckoo clocks for sale.<ref name="realhistory"/> Clock shops selling cuckoo clocks became commonplace in the [[Black Forest]] region by the middle of the 18th century.<ref>{{Cite book|title = Rare and Unusual Black Forest Clocks|last = Miller|first = Justin|publisher = Schiffer|year = 2012|page = 30}}
</ref>

[[Image:Takeda Oumi karakuri.jpg|thumb|A Japanese automata theater in Osaka, drawn in 18th century. The Takeda family opened their automata theater in 1662.]]
[[Japan]] adopted clockwork automata in the early 17th century as "[[karakuri puppet|karakuri]]" puppets. In 1662, Takeda Omi completed his first ''butai karakuri'' and then built several of these large puppets for theatrical exhibitions. Karakuri puppets went through a golden age during the [[Edo period]] (1603–1867).<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title=Robots that Talk and Listen: Technology and Social Impact|last=Markowitz|first=Judith|date=2014|publisher=Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG|isbn=9781614516033|location=Berlin|page=33}}</ref>

A new attitude towards automata is to be found in [[René Descartes]] when he suggested that the bodies of animals are nothing more than complex machines – the bones, muscles and organs could be replaced with [[gear|cogs]], [[piston]]s, and [[Cam (mechanism)|cam]]s. Thus [[mechanism (philosophy)|mechanism]] became the standard to which [[Nature]] and the [[organism]] was compared.<ref>{{cite book |author1=Duane P. Schultz |author2=Sydney Ellen Schultz |title=A History of Modern Psychology |pages=28–34 |publisher=Thompson Wadsworth |year=2008}}</ref> [[France]] in the 17th century was the birthplace of those ingenious [[mechanical toy]]s that were to become prototypes for the engines of the [[Industrial Revolution]]. Thus, in 1649, when [[Louis XIV of France|Louis XIV]] was still a child, [[François-Joseph de Camus]] designed for him a miniature coach, complete with horses and footmen, a page, and a lady within the coach; all these figures exhibited a perfect movement. According to [[Jean-Baptiste Labat|Labat]], [[Jean-Baptiste de Gennes|General de Gennes]] constructed, in 1688, in addition to machines for gunnery and navigation, a peacock that walked and ate. [[Athanasius Kircher]] produced many automata to create Jesuit shows, including a statue which spoke and listened via a [[speaking tube]].

[[File:Vaucanson Automata.jpg|thumb|right|All three of Vaucanson's Automata: [[Vaucanson Flute Player|The Flute Player]], The Tambourine Player, and Digesting Duck]]
The world's first successfully-built biomechanical automaton is considered to be ''[[Vaucanson Flute Player|The Flute Player]]'', which could play twelve songs, created by the French engineer [[Jacques de Vaucanson]] in 1737. He also constructed ''The Tambourine Player'' and the ''[[Digesting Duck]]'', a mechanical duck that – apart from quacking and flapping its wings – gave the false illusion of eating and defecating, seeming to endorse Cartesian ideas that animals are no more than machines of flesh.<ref name="vaucanson">{{cite journal|last1=Fryer|first1=David M.|last2=Marshall|first2=John C.|title=The Motives of Jacques de Vaucanson|journal=Technology and Culture|volume=20|issue=2|page=257|doi=10.2307/3103866|jstor=3103866|year=1979|s2cid=111617989 }}</ref>

In 1769, a chess-playing machine called [[Mechanical Turk|the Turk]], created by [[Wolfgang von Kempelen]], made the rounds of the courts of [[Europe]] purporting to be an automaton.<ref name="randi" />{{rp|34}} The Turk beat [[Benjamin Franklin]] in a game of chess when Franklin was ambassador to France.<ref name="randi" />{{rp|34–35}} The Turk was actually operated from inside by a hidden human director, and was not a true automaton.

[[File:Maillardet's automaton at the Franklin Institute.webm|thumb|[[Maillardet's automaton]] is drawing a picture.]]
[[File:Tipu's Tiger with keyboard on display 2006AH4168.jpg|thumb|[[Tipu's Tiger]] made for [[Tipu Sultan]] of [[Mysore]], featuring a European soldier being mauled by a tiger]]
Other 18th century automaton makers include the prolific Swiss [[Pierre Jaquet-Droz]] (see [[Jaquet-Droz automata]]) and his son Henri-Louis Jaquet-Droz, and his contemporary [[Henri Maillardet]]. Maillardet, a Swiss mechanic, created an automaton capable of drawing four pictures and writing three poems. Maillardet's Automaton is now part of the collections at the [[Franklin Institute]] Science Museum in [[Philadelphia]]. Belgian-born [[John Joseph Merlin]] created the mechanism of the [[Silver Swan (automaton)|Silver Swan]] automaton, now at [[Bowes Museum]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thebowesmuseum.org.uk/Collections/ExploreTheCollection/TheSilverSwan.aspx|title=The Bowes Museum > Collections > Explore The Collection > The Silver Swan|website=www.thebowesmuseum.org.uk|access-date=2014-10-01|archive-date=2016-12-11|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161211085541/http://thebowesmuseum.org.uk/Collections/ExploreTheCollection/TheSilverSwan.aspx|url-status=dead}}</ref> A musical elephant made by the French [[clockmaker]] Hubert Martinet in 1774 is one of the highlights of [[Waddesdon Manor]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7YEPhe2Gp0Y|title=A Marvellous Elephant – Waddesdon Manor|last=Waddesdon Manor|date=22 July 2015|via=YouTube}}</ref> [[Tipu's Tiger]] is another late-18th century example of automata, made for [[Tipu Sultan]], featuring a European soldier being mauled by a tiger. [[Catherine the Great]] of Russia was gifted a very large and elaborate [[Peacock Clock]] created by James Cox in 1781 now on display in the [[Hermitage Museum]] in [[Saint Petersburg]].

According to philosopher [[Michel Foucault]], [[Frederick II of Prussia|Frederick the Great]], [[Kingdom of Prussia|king of Prussia]] from 1740 to 1786, was "obsessed" with automata.<ref>Michel Foucault, ''[[Discipline and Punish]]'', New York, Vintage Books, 1979, p.136: "The classical age discovered the body as object and target of power... The great book of Man-the-Machine was written simultaneously on two registers: the anatomico-metaphysical register, of which Descartes wrote the first pages and which the physicians and philosophers continued, and the technico-political register, which was constituted by a whole set of regulations and by empirical and calculated methods relating to the army, the school and the hospital, for controlling or correcting the operations of the body. These two registers are quite distinct, since it was a question, on one hand, of submission and use and, on the other, of functioning and explanation: there was a useful body and an intelligible body... The celebrated automata [of the 18th century] were not only a way of illustrating an organism, they were also political puppets, small-scale models of power: Frederick, the meticulous king of small machines, well-trained regiments and long exercises, was obsessed with them."</ref> According to [[Manuel de Landa]], "he put together his armies as a well-oiled [[clockwork]] mechanism whose components were robot-like warriors".

In 1801, [[Joseph Marie Jacquard|Joseph Jacquard]] built [[Jacquard loom|his loom automaton]] that was controlled autonomously with punched cards.

Automata, particularly watches and clocks, were popular in China during the 18th and 19th centuries, and items were produced for the Chinese market. Strong interest by Chinese collectors in the 21st century brought many interesting items to market where they have had dramatic realizations.<ref name=NYT>{{cite news|last=Kolesnikov-Jessop|first=Sonia|title=Chinese Swept Up in Mechanical Mania|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/11/26/fashion/26iht-ACAW-AUTOMATON26.html|access-date=November 25, 2011|newspaper=The New York Times|date=November 25, 2011|quote=Mechanical curiosities were all the rage in China during the 18th and 19th centuries, as the Qing emperors developed a passion for automaton clocks and pocket watches, and the "Sing Song Merchants", as European watchmakers were called, were more than happy to encourage that interest.}}</ref>