Editing Cereal (section)

== Cultivation ==

All cereal crops are cultivated in a similar way. Most are [[annual plant|annual]], so after sowing they are harvested just once.<ref name="Barr-2019"/> An exception is rice, which although usually treated as an annual can survive as a [[perennial]], producing a [[ratoon]] crop.<ref name="IRRI rice plant">{{cite web |url=http://www.knowledgebank.irri.org/riceIPM/IPM_Information/PestEcologyBasics/CropGrowthAndPestDamage/RicePlantHowItGrows/The_Rice_plant_and_How_it_Grows.htm |title=The Rice Plant and How it Grows |website=[[International Rice Research Institute]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090106224427/http://www.knowledgebank.irri.org/riceIPM/IPM_Information/PestEcologyBasics/CropGrowthAndPestDamage/RicePlantHowItGrows/The_Rice_plant_and_How_it_Grows.htm |archive-date=January 6, 2009}}</ref> Cereals adapted to a [[temperate climate]], such as [[barley]], [[oat]]s, [[rye]], [[spelt]], [[triticale]], and [[wheat]], are called cool-season cereals. Those preferring a [[tropical climate]], such as [[millet]] and [[sorghum]], are called warm-season cereals.<ref name="Barr-2019"/>{{sfn|Rosentrater|Evers|2018|pp=3–4}}<ref name="Best for grazing">{{cite web |date=22 February 2018 |title=Best Crops for Grazing |url=https://www.agriculture.com/livestock/cattle/best-crops-for-grazing |access-date=18 June 2020 |website=[[Successful Farming]] |archive-date=26 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201126032757/https://www.agriculture.com/livestock/cattle/best-crops-for-grazing |url-status=live}}</ref> Cool-season cereals, especially rye, followed by barley, are hardy; they grow best in fairly cool weather, and stop growing, depending on variety, when the temperature goes above around {{convert|30 |°C|F|round=5|disp=or}}. Warm-season cereals, in contrast, require hot weather and cannot tolerate frost.<ref name="Barr-2019">{{Cite book |last1=Barr |first1=Skylar |last2=Sutton |first2=Mason |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IePEDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA54 |title=Technology of Cereals, Pulses and Oilseeds |publisher=Edtech |year=2019 |isbn=9781839472619 |pages=54 |access-date=30 August 2022 |archive-date=30 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220830133456/https://books.google.com/books?id=IePEDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA54 |url-status=live }}</ref> Cool-season cereals can be grown in highlands in the tropics, where they sometimes deliver several crops in a single year.<ref name="Barr-2019"/>

=== Planting ===

[[File:Green rice sheaves planted in a paddy field with long shadows at golden hour in Don Det Laos.jpg|thumb|left|Newly planted [[rice]] in a [[paddy field]] ]]

In the tropics, warm-season cereals can be grown at any time of the year. In temperate zones, these cereals can only be grown when there is no frost. Most cereals are planted in [[Tillage|tilled soils]], which reduces weeds and breaks up the surface of a field. Most cereals need regular water in the early part of their life cycle.  Rice is commonly grown in flooded fields,<ref name="IRRI water mgmt">{{cite web |url=http://www.knowledgebank.irri.org/step-by-step-production/growth/water-management |title=Water Management |publisher=[[International Rice Research Institute]] |access-date=November 4, 2023 }}</ref> though some strains are grown on dry land.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Gupta |first1=Phool Chand |last2=O'Toole |first2=J. C. O'Toole |year=1986 |title=Upland Rice: A Global Perspective |publisher=[[International Rice Research Institute]] |isbn=978-971-10-4172-4}}</ref> Other warm climate cereals, such as sorghum, are adapted to arid conditions.<ref>{{cite news |last=Danovich |first=Tove |url=https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2015/dec/15/sorghum-wonder-grain-american-food-quinoa |title=Move over, quinoa: sorghum is the new 'wonder grain' |newspaper=[[The Guardian]] |date=15 December 2015 |access-date=31 July 2018}}</ref>

Cool-season cereals are grown mainly in temperate zones. These cereals often have both winter varieties for autumn sowing, winter dormancy, and early summer harvesting, and spring varieties planted in spring and harvested in late summer. Winter varieties have the advantage of using water when it is plentiful, and permitting a second crop after the early harvest. They flower only in spring as they require [[vernalization]], exposure to cold for a specific period, fixed genetically. Spring crops grow when it is warmer but less rainy, so they may need irrigation.<ref name="Barr-2019"/>{{Clear}}

=== Growth ===

[[File:Wheat scab.jpg|thumb|upright=0.6|''[[Fusarium graminearum]]'' damages many cereals, here [[wheat]], where it causes wheat scab (right).]]

Cereal strains are bred for consistency and resilience to the local environmental conditions. The greatest constraints on [[crop yield|yield]] are [[Lists of cereal pests and diseases|plant diseases]], especially [[Rust (fungus)|rusts]] (mostly the ''[[Puccinia]]'' spp.) and [[powdery mildew]]s.<ref name = "Marienlyst" >{{Cite web |year=2015 |pages=1–163 |publisher=[[Aarhus University]] |title=14th International Cereal Rusts and Powdery Mildews Conference |url=https://wheat.pw.usda.gov/GG3/node/176}}</ref> Fusarium head blight, caused by ''[[Fusarium graminearum]]'', is a significant limitation on a wide variety of cereals.<ref name="Disaster">{{cite journal |year=2004 |issue=6 |publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons, Inc.]] |volume=5 |last1=Goswami |first1=R. |last2=Kistler |first2=H. |pages=515–525 |journal=[[Molecular Plant Pathology]] |issn=1464-6722 |s2cid=11548015 |pmid=20565626 |title=Heading for disaster: ''Fusarium graminearum'' on cereal crops |doi=10.1111/j.1364-3703.2004.00252.x |doi-access=free}}</ref> Other pressures include [[Lists of cereal pests and diseases|pest insects]] and wildlife like rodents and deer.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Singleton |first1=Grant R |last2=Lorica |first2=Renee P |last3=Htwe |first3=Nyo Me |last4=Stuart |first4=Alexander M |date=2021-10-01 |title=Rodent management and cereal production in Asia: Balancing food security and conservation |journal=Pest Management Science |volume=77 |issue=10 |pages=4249–4261 |doi=10.1002/ps.6462 |pmid=33949075 |language=en|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Deer (Overview) Interaction with Humans - Damage to Agriculture {{!}} Wildlife Online |url=https://www.wildlifeonline.me.uk/animals/article/deer-overview-interaction-with-humans-damage-to-agriculture |access-date=2024-02-08 |website=www.wildlifeonline.me.uk |language=en}}</ref> In conventional agriculture, some farmers will apply [[fungicide]]s or pesticides

=== Harvesting ===

Annual cereals die when they have come to seed, and dry up. Harvesting begins once the plants and seeds are dry enough. Harvesting in mechanized agricultural systems is by [[combine harvester]], a machine which drives across the field in a single pass in which it cuts the stalks and then [[Threshing|threshes]] and [[Winnowing|winnows]] the grain.<ref name="Barr-2019"/><ref>{{cite book |title=A Century of Innovation: Twenty Engineering Achievements That Transformed Our Lives, Chapter 7, Agricultural Mechanization |last1=Constable |first1=George |last2=Somerville |first2=Bob |year=2003 |publisher=[[Joseph Henry Press]] |location=[[Washington, DC]] |isbn=0-309-08908-5 |url=http://www.greatachievements.org/?id=2955 |access-date=30 August 2022 |archive-date=21 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190521092207/http://www.greatachievements.org/?id=2955 |url-status=live }}</ref> In traditional agricultural systems, mostly in the [[Global North and Global South|Global South]], harvesting may be by hand, using tools such as [[scythe]]s and [[grain cradle]]s.<ref name="Barr-2019"/> Leftover parts of the plant can be allowed to decompose, or collected as [[straw]]; this can be used for animal bedding, mulch, and a growing medium for mushrooms.<ref>{{cite web |title=Cereal Straw |url=https://www.uky.edu/ccd/production/crop-resources/gffof/cereal-straw |publisher=University of Kentucky |access-date=9 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190329052608/https://www.uky.edu/ccd/production/crop-resources/gffof/cereal-straw |archive-date=29 March 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref> It is used in crafts such as building with [[cob (material)|cob]] or [[straw-bale construction]].<ref name="Walker Thomson Maskell 2020">{{cite book |last1=Walker |first1=Pete |last2=Thomson |first2=A. |last3=Maskell |first3=D. |title=Nonconventional and Vernacular Construction Materials |chapter=Straw bale construction |publisher=Elsevier |year=2020 |doi=10.1016/b978-0-08-102704-2.00009-3 |pages=189–216|isbn=978-0-08-102704-2 }}</ref>

<gallery mode=packed heights=155>
File:Rice-combine-harvester, Katori-city, Japan.jpg|A small-scale rice [[combine harvester]] in Japan
</gallery>

=== Preprocessing and storage ===

If cereals are not completely dry when harvested, such as when the weather is rainy, the stored grain will be spoilt by [[mould]] fungi such as ''[[Aspergillus]]'' and ''[[Penicillium]]''.<ref name="Barr-2019"/><ref name="Wiley 2016 pp. 364–375">{{cite book |chapter=Spoilage of Cereals and Cereal Products |editor1=Erkmen, Osman |editor2=Bozoglu, T. Faruk |title=Food Microbiology: Principles into Practice |publisher=Wiley |year=2016 |isbn=978-1-119-23776-1 |doi=10.1002/9781119237860.ch21 |pages=364–375}}</ref> This can be prevented by drying it artificially. It may then be stored in a [[grain elevator]] or [[silo]], to be sold later. Grain stores need to be constructed to protect the grain from damage by pests such as seed-eating birds and [[rodent]]s.<ref name="Barr-2019"/>

<gallery mode=packed heights=155>
File:Woman from small village peeling corn - Zambia.jpg|Peeling [[maize]] in [[Zambia]] 
File:Grain elevators on a farm in Israel (cropped).jpg|[[Grain elevator]]s on a farm in Israel
</gallery>

=== Processing ===

[[File:Mexican woman maize tortillas.jpg|thumb|An indigenous Mexican woman prepares maize [[tortilla]]s, 2013]]

When the cereal is ready to be distributed, it is sold to a manufacturing facility that first removes the outer layers of the grain for subsequent [[Gristmill|milling for flour]] or other processing steps, to produce foods such as flour, [[oatmeal]], or [[pearl barley]].<ref name="Papageorgiou Skendi 2018">{{cite book |last1=Papageorgiou |first1=Maria |last2=Skendi |first2=Adriana |chapter=1 Introduction to cereal processing and by-products |year=2018 |title=Sustainable Recovery and Reutilization of Cereal Processing By-Products |pages=1–25 |editor-last=Galanakis |editor-first=Charis M. |chapter-url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780081021620000010 |access-date=9 February 2024 |series=Woodhead Publishing Series in Food Science, Technology and Nutrition |publisher=Woodhead Publishing |isbn=978-0-08-102162-0}}</ref> In developing countries, processing may be traditional, in artisanal workshops, as with [[Tortilla|tortilla production]] in Central America.<ref name="Astier Odenthal Patricio Orozco-Ramírez 2019">{{cite journal |last1=Astier |first1=Marta |last2=Odenthal |first2=Georg |last3=Patricio |first3=Carmen |last4=Orozco-Ramírez |first4=Quetzalcoatl |title=Handmade tortilla production in the basins of lakes Pátzcuaro and Zirahuén, Mexico |journal=Journal of Maps |publisher=Informa UK |volume=15 |issue=1 |date=2019-01-02 |issn=1744-5647 |doi=10.1080/17445647.2019.1576553 |pages=52–57|bibcode=2019JMaps..15...52A |doi-access=free }}</ref>

Most cereals can be processed in a variety of ways. [[Rice#Processing|Rice processing]], for instance, can create whole-grain or polished rice, or rice flour. Removal of the germ increases the longevity of grain in storage.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2 August 2018 |title=Varieties |url=http://www.riceassociation.org.uk/content/1/10/varieties.html |access-date=9 February 2024 |website=Rice Association|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180802162740/http://www.riceassociation.org.uk/content/1/10/varieties.html |archive-date=2 August 2018 }}</ref> Some grains can be [[Malting|malted]], a process of activating enzymes in the seed to cause sprouting that turns the complex starches into sugars before drying.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Malting Process |url=https://www.brewingwithbriess.com/malting-101/malting-process/ |access-date=9 February 2024 |website=Brewing With Briess}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Malting - an overview |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/food-science/malting |access-date=2024-02-09 |website=Science Direct}}</ref> These sugars can be extracted for industrial uses and further processing, such as for making [[Ethanol|industrial alcohol]],<ref name="Jacobs 1938"/> [[beer]],<ref name="Barth 2014"/> [[whisky]],<ref name="cfr5.22">{{Cite web |title=Standards of Identity for Distilled Spirits, Title 27 Code of Federal Regulations, Pt. 5.22 |url=http://edocket.access.gpo.gov/cfr_2008/aprqtr/pdf/27cfr5.22.pdf |access-date=17 October 2008 |quote=Bourbon whiskey ... Corn whiskey ... Malt whiskey ... Rye whiskey ... Wheat whiskey}}</ref> or [[rice wine]],<ref name="Borrell 2009"/> or sold [[barley malt syrup|directly as a sugar]].<ref name="Briggs 1978 pp. 560–586">{{cite book |last=Briggs |first=D. E. |title=Barley |chapter=Some uses of barley malt |publisher=Springer Netherlands |publication-place=Dordrecht |year=1978 |isbn=978-94-009-5717-6 |doi=10.1007/978-94-009-5715-2_16 |pages=560–586 |quote=products include malt extracts (powders and syrups), diastase, beer, whisky, ... and malt vinegar.}}</ref> In the 20th century, [[Food processing|industrial processes]] developed around chemically altering the grain, to be used for other processes. In particular, [[maize]] can be altered to produce food additives, such as [[corn starch]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.starch.dk/isi/starch/tm18www-corn.htm |title=International Starch: Production of corn starch |publisher=Starch.dk |access-date=2011-06-12 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110515104234/http://www.starch.dk/isi/starch/tm18www-corn.htm |archive-date=2011-05-15 }}</ref> and [[high-fructose corn syrup]].<ref>{{cite web | title=Glucose-fructose syrup: How is it produced? |url=http://www.eufic.org/en/food-production/article/glucose-fructose-how-is-it-produced-infographic | publisher=European Food Information Council (EUFIC) |access-date=9 February 2024 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170517230154/http://www.eufic.org/en/food-production/article/glucose-fructose-how-is-it-produced-infographic |archive-date=17 May 2017}}</ref>