Editing Cheyenne language (section)

==Phonology==

===Vowels===
Cheyenne has three basic [[vowels|vowel qualities]] {{IPA|/e a o/}}. The phoneme called {{IPA|/e/}} here is usually pronounced as a phonetic {{IPA|[ɪ]}}, and sometimes varies to {{IPA|[ɛ]}}. 

These vowel qualities take four [[tone (linguistics)|tone]]s: [[high tone]] as in '''{{lang|chy|á}}''' {{IPA|[á]}}); [[low tone]] as in '''{{lang|chy|a}}''' {{IPA|[à]}}; [[mid tone]] as in '''{{lang|chy|ā}}''' {{IPA|[ā]}}; and [[rising tone]] as in '''{{lang|chy|ô}}''' {{IPA|[ǒ]}}. Tones are often not represented in the orthography. Vowels can also be [[voicelessness|voiceless]] (e.g. '''{{lang|chy|ė}}''' {{IPA|[e̥]}}).<ref>Linguist Wayne Leman included one more variant in his 1981 article on Cheyenne pitch rules, a lowered-high pitch (e.g. à), but has since recognized that this posited pitch is the same as a low tone.</ref> The high and low tones are [[phonemic]], while voiceless vowels' occurrence is determined by the [[phonetic environment|phonetic context]], making them [[allophone]]s of the voiced vowels.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Vowels
|-
!
![[Front vowel|Front]]
![[Central vowel|Central]]
![[Back vowel|Back]]
|-
![[Vowel height|Mid]]
| {{IPAlink|e}}
|
| {{IPAlink|o}}
|-
![[Vowel height|Low]]
|
| {{IPAlink|a}}
|
|}

===Consonants===
* The [[phoneme]] {{IPA|/h/}} is realized as {{IPA|[s]}} in the environment between {{IPA|/e/}} and {{IPA|/t/}} (h > s / e _ t). {{IPA|/h/}} is realized as {{IPA|[ʃ]}} between {{IPA|[e]}} and {{IPA|[k]}} (h > ʃ / e _ k) i.e.  {{IPA|/nahtóna/|lang=chy}} {{Lang|chy|nȧhtona}} – 'alien', {{IPA|/nehtóna/|lang=chy}} {{Lang|chy|nėstona}} – 'your daughter', {{IPA|/hehke/|lang=chy}} {{Lang|chy|heške}} – 'his mother'.
* The digraph {{Grapheme|ts}} represents assibilated {{IPA|/t/}}; a phonological rule of Cheyenne is that [[underlying representation|underlying]] {{IPA|/t/}} becomes [[affricate]]d before an {{IPA|/e/}} {{IPA|(t > ts/_e)}}. Therefore, "ts" is not a separate phoneme, but an [[allophone]] of {{IPA|/t/}}. 
* The sound {{IPA|[x]}} is not a phoneme, but derives from other phonemes, including {{IPA|/ʃ/}} (when {{IPA|/ʃ/}} precedes or follows a non-front vowel, {{IPA|/a/}} or {{IPA|/o/}}), and the past tense [[morpheme]] {{IPA|/h/}} which is pronounced {{IPA|[x]}} when it precedes a morpheme which starts with {{IPA|/h/}}.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Consonants
|-
!
![[Bilabial consonant|Bilabial]]
![[Dental consonant|Dental]]
![[Postalveolar consonant|Post-<br/>alveolar]]
![[Velar consonant|Velar]]
![[Glottal consonant|Glottal]]
|-
![[Nasal stop|Nasal]]
| {{IPAlink|m}}
| {{IPAlink|n}}
|
|
|
|-
![[Plosive]]
| {{IPAlink|p}}
| {{IPAlink|t}}
|
| {{IPAlink|k}}
| {{IPAlink|ʔ}}
|-
![[Fricative]]
| {{IPAlink|v}}
| {{IPAlink|s}}
| {{IPAlink|ʃ}}
| ({{IPAlink|x}})
| {{IPAlink|h}}
|}

===Orthography===
The Cheyenne [[orthography]] of 14 letters is neither a pure phonemic system nor a [[phonetic]] transcription; it is, in the words of linguist Wayne Leman, a "pronunciation [[orthography]]". In other words, it is a practical spelling system designed to facilitate proper pronunciation. Some allophonic variants, such as voiceless vowels, are shown. {{angbr|e}} represents the phoneme symbolized {{IPA|/e/}}, and {{angbr|š}} represents {{IPA|/ʃ/}}.

====Vowels====

* a – {{IPA|[a]}}
* e – {{IPA|[e/ɪ/ɛ]}}
* o – {{IPA|[o]}}

====Consonants====

* h – {{IPA|[h/s/ʃ]}}
* k – {{IPA|[k]}}
* ' – {{IPA|[ʔ]}}
* m – {{IPA|[m]}}
* n – {{IPA|[n]}}
* p – {{IPA|[p]}}
* s – {{IPA|[s]}}
* š – {{IPA|[ʃ]}}
* t – {{IPA|[t]}}
* v – {{IPA|[v]}}
* x – {{IPA|[x]}}

====Tones====
* á, é, ó – high tone
* ȧ, ė, ȯ or â, ê, ô – voiceless or whispered

Low tone is usually unmarked.<ref>{{cite web |title=Cheyenne language, alphabet, and pronunciation |url=https://omniglot.com/writing/cheyenne.htm |website=Omniglot |access-date=27 June 2021}}</ref>

=== Feature system for phonemes ===
The systematic phonemes of Cheyenne are distinguished by seven two-valued features. Scholar Donald G. Frantz defined these features as follows:{{sfn|Frantz|1972a}}
* Oral: primary articulation is oral (vs. at the glottis)
* Vocoid (voc): central resonant (oral) continuant
* Syllabic (syl): nuclear to syllable (vs. marginal)
* Closure (clos): stoppage of air flow at point of primary articulation ['non-continuant']
* Nasal (nas): velic is open
* Grave (grv): primary articulation at oral extremity (lips or velum) ['non-coronal' for consonants, 'back' for vowels]
* Diffuse (dif): primary articulation is relatively front ['anterior']

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
! || ʔ || h || a || o || e || m || n || p || k || t || b || s || š || x
|-
! oral
| − || (+) || (+) || (+) || (+) || (+) || (+) || + || + || + || (+) || (+) || (+) || (+)
|-
! voc
| (−) || + || (+) || (+) || (+) || (−) || (−) || (−) || (−) || (−) || − || − || − || −
|-
! syl
| (−) || − || + || + || + || (−) || (−) || (−) || (−) || (−) || (−) || (−) || (−) || (−)
|-
! clos
| (+) || (−) || (−) || (−) || (−) || (+) || (+) || + || + || + || − || − || − || −
|-
! nas
| 0 || (−) || (−) || (−) || (−) || + || + || − || (−) || − || (−) || (−) || (−) || (−)
|-
! grv
| 0 ||  || − || + || (−) || + || − || + || + || − || + || − || − || +
|-
! dif
| 0 ||  || − || − || + || + || (+) || + || − || (+) || + || + || − || −
|}

0 indicates the value is indeterminable/irrelevant. A blank indicates the value is specifiable, but context is required (even though any value could be inserted because the post-cyclical rules would change the value to the correct one). [[Bracket|Parentheses]] enclose values that are redundant according to the phonological rules; these values simply represent the results of these rules.{{sfn|Frantz|1972a}}

=== Voicing ===

Cheyenne has 14 orthographic letters representing 13 phonemes. {{IPA|[x]}} is written as {{Grapheme|x}} orthographically but is not a phoneme. This count excludes the results of allophonic devoicing, which are spelled with a [[dot (diacritic)|dot over vowels]]. Devoicing naturally occurs in the last vowel of a word or phrase but can also occur in vowels at the penultimate and prepenultimate positions within a word. Non-high {{IPA|[a]}} and {{IPA|[o]}} is also usually devoiced preceding ''h'' followed by a stop. Phonemic {{IPA|/h/}} is absorbed by a preceding voiceless vowel. Examples are given below.

==== Penultimate devoicing ====
* {{IPA|/hohkoʃ/|lang=chy}} {{Lang|chy|hohk'''ȯ'''xe}} 'ax'; 
* {{IPA|/tétahpetáht/|lang=chy}} {{Lang|chy|tsét'''ȧ'''hpét'''ȧ'''htse}} 'the one who is big';
* {{IPA|/mótehk/|lang=chy}} {{Lang|chy|motš'''ė'''ške}} 'knife'

Devoicing occurs when certain vowels directly precede the consonants {{IPA|[t]}}, {{IPA|[s]}}, {{IPA|[ʃ]}}, {{IPA|[k]}}, or {{IPA|[x]}} followed by an {{IPA|[e]}}. The rule is linked to the rule of ''e''-[[epenthesis]], which states simply that [e] appears in the environment of a consonant and a word boundary.{{sfn|Leman|1979|p=215}}

==== Prepenultimate devoicing ====
* {{IPA|/tahpeno/|lang=chy}} {{Lang|chy|t'''ȧ'''hpeno}} 'flute';
* {{IPA|/kosáné/|lang=chy}} {{Lang|chy|k'''ȯ'''sâne}}  'sheep (pl.)';
* {{IPA|/mahnohtehtovot/|lang=chy}} {{Lang|chy|m'''ȧ'''hn'''ȯ'''hts'''ė'''stovȯtse}} 'if you ask him'

A vowel that does not have a high pitch is devoiced if it is followed by a voiceless fricative and not preceded by {{IPA|[h]}}.{{sfn|Leman|1979|p=215}}

==== Special {{IPA|[a]}} and {{IPA|[o]}} devoicing ====
* {{IPA|/émóheeohtéo/|lang=chy}} {{Lang|chy|émôhee'''ȯ'''htseo'o}} 'they are gathering'; 
* {{IPA|/náohkeho'sóe/|lang=chy}} {{Lang|chy|ná'''ȯ'''hkėho'soo'e}} 'I regularly dance'; 
* {{IPA|/nápóahtenáhnó/|lang=chy}} {{Lang|chy|nápô'''ȧ'''htsenáhno}} 'I punched him in the mouth'

Non-high {{IPA|[a]}} and {{IPA|[o]}} become at least partially devoiced when they are preceded by a voiced vowel and followed by an {{IPA|[h]}}, a consonant, and two or more syllables.{{sfn|Leman|1979|p=218}}

==== Consonant devoicing ====
{{Lang|chy|émane}} {{IPA|[ɪmaṅɪ]|lang=chy}} 'He is drinking.'

Before a voiceless segment, a consonant is devoiced.{{sfn|Leman|1979|p=218}}

==== ''h''-absorption ====
* {{Lang|chy|-pėhévoéstomo'he}} 'kind' + {{Lang|chy|-htse}} 'imperative suffix' > {{Lang|chy|-pėhévoéstomo'ėstse}}
* {{Lang|chy|tsé-}} 'conjunct prefix' + {{Lang|chy|-éna'he}} 'old' + {{Lang|chy|-tse}} '3rd pers. suffix' > {{Lang|chy|tsééna'ėstse}} 'the one who is old'
* {{Lang|chy|né}} + 'you' + {{Lang|chy|-one'xȧho'he}} 'burn' + {{Lang|chy|tse}} 'suffix for some 'you-me' transitive animate forms' > {{Lang|chy|néone'xȧho'ėstse}} ' you burn me'

The {{IPA|[h]}} is absorbed if it is preceded or followed by voiceless vowels.{{sfn|Leman|1979|p=217}}

=== Pitch and tone ===
There are several rules that govern pitch use in Cheyenne.  Pitch can be ˊ = high, unmarked = low, ˉ = mid, and ˆ = raised high. According to linguist Wayne Leman, some research shows that Cheyenne may have a stress system independent from that of pitch. If this is the case, the stress system's role is very minor in Cheyenne prosody. It would have no grammatical or lexical function, unlike pitch.{{sfn|Leman|1981}}

====High-raising====
A high pitch becomes a raised high when it is not preceded by another high vowel and precedes an underlying word-final high.{{sfn|Leman|1979|p=219}}
* {{IPA|/ʃéʔʃé/|lang=chy}} {{Lang|chy|š'''ê'''<nowiki>'</nowiki>še}} 'duck'; 
* {{IPA|/sémón/|lang=chy}} {{Lang|chy|s'''ê'''mo}} 'boat'

====Low-to-high raising====
A low vowel is raised to the high position when it follows a high and is followed by a word final high.{{sfn|Leman|1979|p=219}}
* {{IPA|/méʃené/|lang=chy}} {{Lang|chy|méš'''é'''ne}} 'ticks'; 
* {{IPA|/návóomó/|lang=chy}} {{Lang|chy|návó'''ó'''mo}} 'I see him'; 
* {{IPA|/póesón/|lang=chy}} {{Lang|chy|pó'''é'''so}} 'cat'

====Low-to-mid raising====
A low vowel becomes a mid when it is followed by a word-final high but not directly preceded by a high vowel.{{sfn|Leman|1979|p=219}}
* {{IPA|/kosán/|lang=chy}} {{Lang|chy|k'''ō'''sa}} 'sheep (sg.)'; 
* {{IPA|/heʔé/|lang=chy}} {{Lang|chy|h'''ē'''<nowiki>'</nowiki>e}} 'woman'; 
* {{IPA|/éhomosé/|lang=chy}} {{Lang|chy|éhom'''ō'''se}} 'he is cooking'

===High pushover===
A high vowel becomes low if it comes after a high and followed by a phonetic low.{{sfn|Leman|1979|p=219}}
* {{IPA|/néháóénáma/|lang=chy}} {{Lang|chy|néhâ'''oe'''n'''a'''ma}} 'we (incl) prayed'; 
* {{IPA|/néméhótóne/|lang=chy}} {{Lang|chy|némêh'''o'''t'''o'''ne}} 'we (incl) love him'; 
* {{IPA|/náméhósanémé/|lang=chy}} {{Lang|chy|námêh'''o'''sanême}} 'we (excl) love'

====Word-medial high raising====
According to Leman, "some verbal prefixes and preverbs go through the process of Word-Medial High-Raising. A high is raised if it follows a high (which is not a trigger for the High Push-Over rule) and precedes a phonetic low. One or more voiceless syllables may come between the two highs.  (A devoiced vowel in this process must be underlyingly low, not an underlyingly high vowel which has been devoiced by the High-Pitch Devoicing rule.)"{{sfn|Leman|1979|p=220}}
* {{IPA|/émésehe/|lang=chy}} {{Lang|chy|ém'''ê'''sehe}} 'he is eating'; 
* {{IPA|/téhnémenétó/|lang=chy}} {{Lang|chy|tséhn'''ê'''menéto}} 'when I sang'; 
* {{IPA|/násáamétohénoto/|lang=chy}} {{Lang|chy|nás'''â'''amétȯhênoto}} 'I didn't give him to him'

=== Tone ===
Syllables with high pitch (tone) are relatively high pitched and are marked by an acute accent, {{Grapheme|á}}, {{Grapheme|é}}, and {{Grapheme|ó}}. The following pairs of phrases demonstrate pitch contrasts in the Cheyenne language: 
* {{Lang|chy|maxháeanáto}} ('if I am hungry')
* {{Lang|chy|maxháeanato}} ('if you are hungry')
* {{Lang|chy|hótame}} ('dog')
* {{Lang|chy|hotāme}} ('dogs')
As noted by Donald G. Frantz, phonological rules dictate some pitch patterns, as indicated by the frequent shift of accent when suffixes are added (e.g. compare {{Lang|chy|matšėškōme}} 'raccoon'&nbsp;and {{Lang|chy|mátšėškomeo'o}}&nbsp;'raccoons'). In order for the rules to work, certain vowels are assigned inherent accent. For example, the word for 'badger' has a permanent accent position: {{Lang|chy|ma'háhko'e}} (sg.), {{Lang|chy|ma'háhko'eo'o}} (pl.){{sfn|Frantz|1972b}}

=== Nonnasal reflexes of Proto-Algonquian *''k'' ===
The research of linguist Paul Proulx provides an explanation for how these reflexes develop in Cheyenne: "First, *''n'' and *''h'' drop and all other consonants give glottal catch before *''k''. *''k'' then drops except in element-final position. Next, there is an increment before any remaining *''k'' not preceded by a glottal catch: a secondary ''h'' (replaced by ''š'' after ''e'') ) in words originating in the Cheyenne Proper dialect, and a vowel in those originating in the Sutaio (So'taa'e) dialect. In the latter dialect the *''k'' gives glottal catch in a word-final syllable (after the loss of some final syllables) and drops elsewhere, leaving the vowel increment. Sutaio '''k''' clusters are all reduced to glottal catch."{{sfn|Proulx|1982}}