Editing Clitoridectomy (section)

==Society and culture==
===General===
While much [[Feminism|feminist]] scholarship has described clitoridectomy as a practice aimed at controlling women's sexuality, the historic emergence of the practice in ancient European and Middle Eastern cultures may also have derived from ideas about what a normal female genitalia should look like and the policing of boundaries between the sexes.<ref>Norbert Finzsch, Der Widerspenstigen Verstümmelung: Eine Geschichte der Kliteridektomie im „Westen”, 1500-2000. Bielefeld: Transcript, 2021.</ref>

In the seventeenth century, anatomists remained divided on whether a clitoris was a normal female organ, with some arguing that it was an abnormality in female development and, if large enough to be visible, it should always be removed at birth.<ref>Alison M. Moore, Victorian Medicine Was Not Responsible for Repressing the Clitoris: Rethinking Homology in the Long History of Women’s Genital Anatomy. Signs: The Journal of Women in Culture and Society 44 (1) August 2018, 53-81. DOI: 10.1086/698277.</ref> In the 19th century, a clitoridectomy was thought by some to curb [[Masturbation#Female masturbation|female masturbation]]; until the late 19th century, masturbation [[Masturbation#Development of the contemporary Western world view|was thought by many]] to be unhealthy or immoral.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Duffy, John|author-link=John Duffy (medical historian)|doi=10.1001/jama.1963.63710030028012|date=October 19, 1963|title=Masturbation and Clitoridectomy: A Nineteenth-Century View|journal=JAMA|volume=186|issue=3|pages=246–248|pmid=14057114}}</ref> [[Isaac Baker Brown]] (1812–1873), an English gynaecologist who was president of the [[Medical Society of London]]  believed that the "unnatural irritation" of the clitoris caused [[epilepsy]], [[Female hysteria|hysteria]], and [[mania]], and he worked "to remove [it] whenever he had the opportunity of doing so", according to his obituary in the ''Medical Times and Gazette''. [[Peter Lewis Allen]] writes that Brown's views caused outrage, and he died penniless after being expelled from the [[Obstetrical Society]].<ref>[[Peter Lewis Allen|Allen, Peter Lewis]]. ''The Wages of Sin: Sex and Disease, Past and Present''. University of Chicago Press, 2000, [https://archive.org/details/wagesofsinsexdis00alle/page/106 p. 106].
* For the obituary, see J.F.C. [https://books.google.com/books?id=gZ4EAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA155 "Isaac Baker Brown, F.R.C.S."] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231223171914/https://books.google.com/books?id=gZ4EAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA155#v=onepage&q&f=false |date=2023-12-23 }}, ''Medical Times and Gazette'', 8 February 1873.
* Also see Brown, Isaac Baker. ''On the Curability of Certain Forms of Insanity, Epilepsy, Catalepsy, and Hysteria in Females''. Robert Hardwicke, 1866.</ref>

Occasionally, in American and English medicine of the nineteenth century, [[circumcision]] was done as a cure for insanity. Some believed that [[Mental disorder|mental and emotional disorders]] were related to female reproductive organs and that removing the clitoris would cure the neurosis. This treatment was discontinued in 1867.<ref>{{Cite journal | last = Atoki | first = Morayo | s2cid = 144198914 | title = Should female circumcision continue to be banned? | journal = [[Feminist Legal Studies]] | volume = 3 | issue = 2 | page = 229 | doi = 10.1007/BF01104114 | date = August 1995 | postscript =; Access provided by the University of Pittsburgh.}}</ref>

[[Aesthetics]] may determine clitoral norms. A lack of ambiguity of the genitalia is seen as necessary in the [[assignment of a sex]] to infants and therefore whether a child's genitalia is normal, but what is considered ambiguous or normal can vary from person to person.<ref name = "Kessler">{{cite book|last1=Kessler|first1=Suzanne J.|title=Lessons from the intersexed|date=2000|publisher=Rutgers Univ. Press|location=New Brunswick, NJ [u.a.]|isbn=978-0813525297|page=43|edition=2. Paperback printing.}}</ref>

Sexual behavior is another reason for clitoridectomies. Author Sarah Rodriguez stated that the history of medical textbooks has indirectly created accepted ideas about the female body. Medical and gynecological textbooks are also at fault in the way that the clitoris is described in comparison to a male's [[penis]]. The importance and originality of a female's clitoris is underscored because it is seen as "a less significant organ, since anatomy texts compared the penis and the clitoris in only one direction." Rodriguez said that a male's penis created the framework of the sexual organ.<ref name = "Rodriguez">{{cite book|last1=Rodriguez|first1=Sarah|title=Female Circumcision and Clitoridectomy in the United States: A History of Medical Treatment|date=2014|publisher=University of Rochester Press}}</ref>
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Not all historical examples of clitoral surgeries should be assumed to be clitoridectomy (removal of the clitoris). In the nineteen thirties, the French psychoanalyst [[Marie Bonaparte]] studied African clitoral surgical practices and showed that these often involved removal of the clitoral hood, not the clitoris. She also had a surgery done to her own clitoris by the Viennese surgeon Dr Halban, which entailed cutting the [[Suspensory ligament of clitoris|suspensory ligament of the clitoris]] to permit it to sit closer to her vaginal opening. These sorts of clitoral surgeries, contrary to reducing women's sexual pleasure, actually appear aimed at making coitus more pleasurable for women, though it is unclear if that is ever their actual outcome.<ref>Relocating Marie Bonaparte’s Clitoris. Australian Feminist Studies 24 (60), April 2009, 149-165.</ref>

===Human rights concerns===
{{Further|Female genital mutilation}}
Clitoridectomies are the most common form of female genital mutilation. The [[World Health Organization]] (WHO) estimates that clitoridectomies have been performed on 200 million girls and women that are currently alive. The regions that most clitoridectomies take place are Asia, the Middle East and west, north and east Africa. The practice also exists in migrants originating from these regions. Most of the surgeries are for cultural or religious reasons.<ref>{{cite web | title = Female genital mutilation | publisher = [[World Health Organization]] | date = February 2016 | url = https://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs241/en/ | access-date = 2016-03-26 | archive-date = 2016-06-28 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160628070619/http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs241/en/ | url-status = live }}</ref>

Clitoridectomy of people with conditions such as [[congenital adrenal hyperplasia]] that cause a clitoromegaly is controversial when it takes place during childhood or under duress. Many women who were exposed to such treatment have reported loss of physical sensation in the affected area, and loss of [[autonomy]].<ref>{{Cite web| last = Holmes| first = Morgan| author-link = Morgan Holmes| title = Is Growing up in Silence Better Than Growing up Different?| work = [[Intersex Society of North America]]| url = http://www.isna.org/node/743| access-date = 2016-08-26| archive-date = 2016-03-05| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160305055336/http://www.isna.org/node/743| url-status = live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news| last = Bastien-Charlebois| first = Janik| author-link = Janik Bastien-Charlebois| title = My coming out: The lingering intersex taboo| work = [[Montreal Gazette]]| date = August 9, 2015| url = https://montrealgazette.com/life/my-coming-out-the-lingering-intersex-taboo| access-date = 2016-08-26| archive-date = 2017-12-22| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20171222042319/http://montrealgazette.com/life/my-coming-out-the-lingering-intersex-taboo| url-status = live}}</ref> In recent years, multiple human rights institutions have criticized early surgical management of such characteristics.<ref>{{Cite web| last = Méndez| first = Juan| title = Report of the Special Rapporteur on torture and other cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment, Juan E. Méndez, A.HRC.22.53| date = February 2013| url = http://www.ohchr.org/Documents/HRBodies/HRCouncil/Regularsession/Session22/A.HRC.22.53_English.pdf| access-date = 2016-08-27| archive-date = 2016-08-24| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160824161117/http://www.ohchr.org/Documents/HRBodies/HRCouncil/RegularSession/Session22/A.HRC.22.53_English.pdf| url-status = live}}</ref><ref>{{Citation| last1 = Council of Europe| last2 = Commissioner for Human Rights| title = Human rights and intersex people, Issue Paper| date = April 2015| url = https://wcd.coe.int/ViewDoc.jsp?Ref=CommDH/IssuePaper(2015)1&Language=lanEnglish&Ver=original| author1-link = Council of Europe| access-date = 2016-08-27| archive-date = 2016-01-06| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160106203349/https://wcd.coe.int/ViewDoc.jsp?Ref=CommDH%2FIssuePaper%282015%291&Language=lanEnglish&Ver=original| url-status = live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book| publisher = [[Asia Pacific Forum]] of National Human Rights Institutions| isbn = 978-0-9942513-7-4| last = Asia Pacific Forum of National Human Rights Institutions| title = Promoting and Protecting Human Rights in relation to Sexual Orientation, Gender Identity and Sex Characteristics| date = June 2016| url = http://www.asiapacificforum.net/resources/manual-sogi-and-sex-charactersitics/| access-date = 2016-08-27| archive-date = 2017-01-15| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170115144950/http://www.asiapacificforum.net/resources/manual-sogi-and-sex-charactersitics/| url-status = live}}</ref>

In 2013, it was disclosed in a medical journal that four unnamed elite female athletes from developing countries were subjected to gonadectomies and partial clitoridectomies after [[Sex verification in sports|testosterone testing]] revealed that they had an [[intersex]] variation or disorder of sex development.<ref name="jcem2013">{{Cite journal| doi = 10.1210/jc.2012-3893| pmid = 23633205 | issn = 0021-972X | volume = 98| issue = 6| pages = –1055–E1059| last1 = Fénichel| first1 = Patrick| last2 = Paris| first2 = Françoise| last3 = Philibert| first3 = Pascal| last4 = Hiéronimus| first4 = Sylvie| last5 = Gaspari| first5 = Laura| last6 = Kurzenne| first6 = Jean-Yves| last7 = Chevallier| first7 = Patrick| last8 = Bermon| first8 = Stéphane| last9 = Chevalier| first9 = Nicolas| last10 = Sultan| first10 = Charles| title = Molecular Diagnosis of 5α-Reductase Deficiency in 4 Elite Young Female Athletes Through Hormonal Screening for Hyperandrogenism| journal = The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism| date = June 2013|display-authors=3| doi-access = free}}</ref><ref name="bmj2014">{{Cite journal| doi = 10.1136/bmj.g2926| issn = 1756-1833| volume = 348| issue = apr28 9| pages = –2926–g2926| last1 = Jordan-Young| first1 = R. M.| last2 = Sonksen| first2 = P. H.| last3 = Karkazis| first3 = K.| s2cid = 2198650| author-link1= Rebecca Jordan-Young | author-link3= Katrina Karkazis |title = Sex, health, and athletes| journal = BMJ| date = April 2014 | pmid=24776640}}</ref> In April 2016, the [[United Nations Special Rapporteur]] on health, Dainius Pūras, condemned this treatment as a form of genital mutilation "in the absence of symptoms or health issues warranting those procedures."<ref name="un2016">{{Citation | last2 = Special Rapporteur on the right of everyone to the enjoyment of the highest attainable standard of physical and mental health | title = Sport and healthy lifestyles and the right to health. Report A/HRC/32/33 | last1 = Pūras | first1 = Dainius | publisher = [[United Nations]] | date = April 4, 2016 | url = http://ap.ohchr.org/documents/dpage_e.aspx?si=A/HRC/32/33 | access-date = August 27, 2016 | archive-date = December 15, 2016 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20161215111551/http://ap.ohchr.org/documents/dpage_e.aspx?si=A%2FHRC%2F32%2F33 | url-status = live }}</ref>