Editing Color term (section)

===Color-term hierarchy===
In the classic study of [[Brent Berlin]] and [[Paul Kay]] (1969), ''[[Basic Color Terms|Basic Color Terms: Their Universality and Evolution]]'',<ref name="BerlinKay1969"/> the researchers argued that the differences in number of basic color terms in languages follow a repeatable pattern. Color terms can be organized into a coherent hierarchy and there are a limited number of universal '''basic color terms''' which begin to be used by individual cultures in a relatively fixed order. This order is defined in stages I to VII. Berlin and Kay originally based their analysis on a comparison of color words in 20 languages from around the world. The model is presented below, broken into stages, with stage I on the left and stage VII on the right:<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kay |first1=Paul |last2=McDaniel |first2=Chad |year=1978 |title=The Linguistic Significance of the Meanings of Basic Color Terms |journal=Language |volume=54 |issue=3 |pages=610–646 |doi=10.1353/lan.1978.0035|s2cid=26961780 }}</ref><br/><math>\begin{Bmatrix}\text{white} \\ \text{black} \end{Bmatrix} < \text{red} < \begin{Bmatrix}\text{green} \\ \text{yellow} \end{Bmatrix} < \text{blue} < \text{brown} <\begin{Bmatrix}\text{purple} \\ \text{pink} \\ \text{orange} \\ \text{grey} \end{Bmatrix}</math>

Berlin and Kay's study identified seven stages of color distinction systems. Each progressive stage features a color term that the previous stages do not.

====Stage I (dark and light)====
{| class="wikitable" style="font-weight:bold; float:right"
|-
! style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | Stage I<ref name=Kay99>{{cite journal |last1=Kay |first1=Paul |author-link2=Luisa Maffi |last2=Maffi |first2=Luisa |year=1999 |title=Color appearance and the emergence and evolution of basic color lexicons |journal=American Anthropologist |volume=101 |issue=4 |pages=743–760 |doi=10.1525/aa.1999.101.4.743|doi-access=free }}</ref>
! style="font-weight:normal;" | light–warm (white/yellow/red)<br/>dark–cool (black/blue/green)
|}
Stage I contains two terms, white and black (light and dark); these terms are referenced broadly to describe other undefined color terms. For example, the [[Yali people|Yali]] highland group in New Guinea identify the color of blood as black. This is because blood, as a relatively dark liquid, is grouped into the same color classification as black.

In the [[Bassa language]], there are two terms for classifying colors: {{lang|bsq|ziza}} (white, yellow, orange, and red) and {{lang|bsq|hui}} (black, violet, blue, and green).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=McNeill |first1=N. B. |title=Colour and colour terminology |journal=Journal of Linguistics |date=28 November 2008 |volume=8 |issue=1 |pages=21–33 |doi=10.1017/S002222670000311X|s2cid=26668333 }}</ref>

In the [[Pirahã language]], there appear to be no color terms beyond describing lightness and darkness.<ref>Kay, Paul. (2007). [http://itre.cis.upenn.edu/myl/languagelog/archives/004399.html ''Pirahã Color Terms'']. Retrieved 17 March 2019.</ref>

The [[Grand Valley Dani|Dani language]] of [[western New Guinea]] differentiates only two basic colors: {{lang|dni|mili}} for cool/dark shades such as blue, green, and black; and {{lang|dni|mola}} for warm/light colors such as red, yellow, and white.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Fl8gAQAAIAAJ&q=mili+mola++|title=The Invention of Basic Colour Terms|first=Barbara Ann Christine|last=Saunders|year=1992|publisher=R.U.U.–I.S.O.R.|isbn=9789051870879 |via=Google Books}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/2800917|title=Probabilities, Sampling, and Ethnographic Method: The Case of Dani Colour Names|author=Heider, Eleanor Rosch|year=1972|journal=Man|volume=7|issue=3|pages=448–466|doi=10.2307/2800917|jstor=2800917 }}</ref>

====Stage II (red)====
{| class="wikitable" style="font-weight:bold; float:right"
|-
! style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | Stage II<ref name=Kay99/>
! style="font-weight:normal;" | white<br/>red/yellow<br/>black/blue/green
|}
Stage II implements a third term for red. Objects begin to rely less on their brightness for classification and in this stage we instead see each term cover a larger scope of colors. Specifically, blue and other darker shades continue to be described as black, yellow and orange colors are classified with red, and other bright colors continue to be classified with white.

In the [[Bambara language]], there are three color terms: {{lang|bm|dyema}} (white, beige), {{lang|bm|blema}} (reddish, brownish), and {{lang|bm|fima}} (dark green, indigo, and black).

====Stage III/IV (yellow + green)====
{| class="wikitable" style="font-weight:bold; float:right"
|-
! style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | Stage III<ref name=Kay99/>
! style="font-weight:normal;" |white<br/>red<br/>yellow<br/>black/blue/green
! style="font-weight:normal;" |white<br/>red<br/>yellow/green/blue<br/>black
! style="font-weight:normal;" |white<br/>red/yellow<br/>green/blue<br/>black
|}
Stage III identifies a third term referring either to green (IIIa) or yellow (IIIb). Most languages in the study with this system identify yellow over green, such as the [[Komi language]], where green is considered a shade of yellow ({{lang|kv|виж}}, {{lang|kv|vizh}}), called {{lang|kv|турун виж}} ({{lang|kv|turun vizh)}} {{Gloss|grass yellow}}.<ref>Rueter, Jack M. (1996), Komia-anglisköĭ-finsköĭ</ref> However, the Nigerian [[Ibibio language]] and the Philippine [[Hanunoo language]] both identify green instead of yellow.

The [[Ovahimba]] use [[Himba people#Color perception and vision|four color names]]: {{lang|hz|zuzu}} stands for dark shades of blue, red, green, and purple; {{lang|hz|vapa}} is white and some shades of yellow; {{lang|hz|buru}} is some shades of green and blue; and {{Lang|hz|dambu}} is some other shades of green, red, and brown.<ref name="himba colour">{{cite book |last1=Roberson |first1=Debi |last2=Davidoff |first2=Jules |last3=Davies |first3=Ian R.L. |last4=Shapiro |first4=Laura R. |year=2006 |chapter=Colour categories and category acquisition in Himba and English |pages=159–172 |publisher=John Benjamins Publishing Company |doi=10.1075/z.pics2.14rob |editor1-first=Nicola |editor1-last=Pitchford |editor2-first=Carole P. |editor2-last=Biggam |title=Progress in Colour Studies |volume=II Psychological aspects |isbn=978-90-272-3240-3 |via=ResearchGate |chapter-url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/43627151 |access-date=2012-05-28}}</ref> It is thought that this may [[Stroop effect|increase the time it takes]] for the Ovahimba to distinguish between two colors that fall under the same [[Herero people|Herero]] color category, compared to people whose language separates the colors into two different color categories.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Reiger |first1=Terry |first2=Paul |last2=Kay |title=Language, thought, and color: Whorf was half right |journal=[[Trends (journals)|Trends in Cognitive Sciences]] |date=28 August 2009 |doi=10.1016/j.tics.2009.07.001 |url=http://www1.icsi.berkeley.edu/~kay/tics2.pdf |access-date=2012-08-29 |volume=13 |issue=10 |pages=439–446 |pmid=19716754|s2cid=2564005 }}</ref>

{| class="wikitable" style="font-weight:bold; float:right"
|-
! style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | Stage IV<ref name=Kay99/>
! style="font-weight:normal;" |white<br/>red<br/>yellow<br/>green<br/>black/blue
! style="font-weight:normal;" |white<br/>red<br/>yellow<br/>green/blue<br/>black
|}
Stage IV incorporates green or yellow, whichever was not already present, i.e. stage IIIa languages will adopt yellow and stage IIIb languages will adopt green. Most stage IV languages continue to [[colexification|colexify]] blue and green, as listed in ''[[Blue–green distinction in language]]''.

The [[Chinese character]] [[wikt:青|青]] (pronounced {{lang|cmn-Latn|qīng}} in [[Standard Chinese|Mandarin]] and {{lang|ja-Latn|ao}} in Japanese) has a meaning that covers both blue and green. In more contemporary terms, they are [[wikt:藍|藍]] ({{lang|cmn-Latn|lán}}, in Mandarin) and [[wikt:綠|綠]] ({{lang|cmn-Latn|lǜ}}, in Mandarin) respectively. Japanese also has two terms that refer specifically to the color green, {{wikt-lang|ja|緑}} ({{lang|ja-Latn|midori}}, derived from the classical Japanese descriptive verb {{lang|ja-Latn|midoru}} {{Gloss|to be in leaf, to flourish}} in reference to trees) and {{lang|ja|グリーン}} ({{lang|ja-Latn|guriin}}, which is derived from the English word 'green').{{Citation needed|date=January 2017}}

====Stage V (blue)====
{| class="wikitable" style="font-weight:bold; float:right"
|-
! style="background-color:#c0c0c0;" | Stage V<ref name=Kay99/>
! style="font-weight:normal;" |white<br/>red<br/>yellow<br/>green<br/>blue<br/>black
|}
Stage V introduces blue as its own color term, differentiating from black or from green.

====Stage VI (brown)====
The seventh basic color term is likely to be brown.

In English, this is the first basic color term (other than black and white) that is not differentiated on hue, but rather on lightness. English splits some hues into several distinct colors according to lightness: such as red and pink or orange and brown. To English speakers, these pairs of colors, which are objectively no more different from one another than light green and dark green, are conceived of as belonging to different categories.<ref name="BerlinKay1969">{{cite book |author1-link=Brent Berlin |last1=Berlin |first1=Brent |author2-link=Paul Kay |first2=Paul |last2=Kay |year=1969 |title=Basic Color Terms: Their universality and evolution |title-link=Basic Color Terms: Their Universality and Evolution}}</ref>

====Stage VII====
Stage VII adds additional terms for orange, pink, purple, or gray, but these do not exhibit the same hierarchy as the previous seven colors.<ref>{{cite book |editor-last=Varley |editor-first=Helen |title=Color |location=London |date=1980 |publisher=Marshall Editions |isbn=0-89535-037-8 |chapter=The Vocabulary of Color |pages=50–51}}</ref> 

English contains eleven basic color terms: 'black', 'white', 'red', 'green', 'yellow', 'blue', 'brown', 'orange', 'pink', 'purple', and 'gray'.

====Stage VII+====
[[File:Moscow-metro-light-blue-line.png|thumb|Use of light-blue ({{lang|ru|голубой}}, {{lang|ru-Latn|{{Itco|goluboi}} }}) and dark-blue ({{lang|ru|синий}}, {{lang|ru-Latn|{{Itco|sinii}} }}) colors for different lines of the [[Moscow Metro]]]]
Languages with further color distinction use relativistic light/dark terms like light blue{{Nbsp}}/ [[navy blue|dark blue]] (in comparison to blue sky{{Nbsp}}/ blue ocean), or [[pink|pale red]]{{Nbsp}}/ [[Maroon|deep red]].

[[Italian language|Italian]], [[Russian language|Russian]] and [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] have twelve basic color terms, each distinguishing blue and light blue. A Russian will make the same red/pink and orange/brown distinctions, but will also make a further distinction between {{lang|ru|синий}} ({{lang|ru-Latn|sinii}}) and {{lang|ru|голубой}} ({{lang|ru-Latn|goluboi}}), which English speakers would call dark and light blue. To Russian speakers, {{lang|ru-Latn|sinii}} and {{lang|ru-Latn|goluboi}} are as separate as red and pink, or orange and brown.<ref>{{cite news |title=Seeing the blues |magazine=Nature |series=News |date=2007-04-30 |url=http://www.nature.com/news/2007/070430/full/news070430-2.html}}</ref>

[[Hungarian language|Hungarian]] and [[Turkish language|Turkish]] [[Hungarian language#Two words for "red"|distinguish multiple words]] for 'red': {{lang|hu|piros}} and {{lang|hu|vörös}} (Hungarian; {{lang|hu|vörös}} is a darker red), and {{lang|tr|kırmızı}}, {{lang|tr|al}}, and {{lang|tr|kızıl}} (Turkish); {{lang|tr|kırmızı}} now includes all reds but originally referred to [[crimson]], to which it is cognate, while {{lang|tr|kızıl}} mainly refers to scarlet and other orange-tinted or brownish reds. Two words for 'red' are also found in Irish and [[Scottish Gaelic]]: ({{lang|ga|dearg}} for light, bright red and {{lang|ga|rua}} or {{lang|gd|ruadh}} respectively for dark, brownish red). Turkish also has two words for 'white' ({{lang|tr|beyaz}} and {{lang|tr|ak}}) and 'black' ({{lang|tr|siyah}} and {{lang|tr|kara}}). {{lang|tr|Ak}} and {{lang|tr|beyaz}} have the same meaning, while {{lang|tr|kara}} is a broader term than {{lang|tr|siyah}} and also includes dark browns; which word is used also depends on the kind of object being described. Both {{lang|tr|ak}} and {{lang|tr|kara}} are of Turkic origin, while {{lang|tr|siyah}} is borrowed from [[Persian language|Persian]], and {{lang|tr|beyaz}} from Arabic {{lang|ar|بياض}} {{lang|ar-Latn|bayāḍ}}.

In [[Serbo-Croatian]] there are differences in dark brown ({{lang|sh|mrk}}), brown ({{Lang|sh|smeđ}} and {{lang|sh|kestenjast}}), red ({{lang|sh|crven}}), pink ({{lang|sh|ružičast}}), and orange ({{lang|sh|narandžast}}), as well as in blue hues: navy blue ({{lang|sh|teget}}), dark blue ({{lang|sh|modar}}), blue ({{lang|sh|plav}}), and ash blue ({{lang|sh|{{Itco|sinj}} }}).

An interesting case that deviates from this pattern is [[Irish language|Irish]]'s two words for green:
* {{lang|ga|glas}} denotes the green color of plants
* {{lang|ga|uaine}} denotes artificial greens of dyes, paints etc.
This distinction is made even if two shades are identical. {{Lang|ga|Glas}} is also used for "natural" grays, such as the [[Eastern gray squirrel|gray squirrel]], {{lang|ga|iora glas}}.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.thejournal.ie/readme/the-irish-for-colours-you-may-have-forgotten-lots-of-your-schooling-but-you-should-remember-the-word-bandearg-4447647-Jan2019/ |title=The Irish For: How many colours can you remember? |first=Darach |last=Ó Séaghdha |date=January 20, 2019 |work=[[TheJournal.ie]] }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gnQ9AAAAYAAJ&q=uaine+glas+distinction |title=Transactions of the Gaelic Society of Glasgow |via=[[Google Books]] }}</ref>

====Linguistic relativity====
{{main|Linguistic relativity and the color naming debate}}
These colors roughly correspond to the sensitivities of the retinal ganglion cells, leading Berlin and Kay to argue that color naming is not merely a cultural phenomenon, but is one that is also constrained by biology—that is, language is shaped by perception.<ref name="BerlinKay1969"/> A 2012 study<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Loreto |first1=Vittorio |last2=Mukherjee |first2=Animesh |last3=Tria |first3=Francesca |year=2012 |title=On the origin of the hierarchy of color names |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=109 |issue=18 |pages=6819–6824 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1113347109 |pmc=3344991 |pmid=22509002|bibcode=2012PNAS..109.6819L |doi-access=free }}</ref> suggested that the origin of this hierarchy may be tied to human vision and the time ordering in which these color names get accepted or agreed upon in a population perfectly matches the order predicted by the hierarchy.