Editing Common firecrest (section)

== Behaviour and ecology==

=== Breeding ===
[[File:Regulus Ignicapilla Singing with Crest.jpg|thumb|Singing with crest displayed in a hazelnut tree. [[Capranica, Lazio|Capranica]], Italy.]]
[[File:Regulus ignicapilla MHNT.ZOO.2010.11.207.jpg|thumb|Eggs of ''Regulus ignicapilla'' – [[MHNT]]]]
The common firecrest is [[monogamy in animals|monogamous]]. The male sings during the breeding season, often with its crest raised, and has a [[display (zoology)|display]]  which involves pointing its bill at another bird, showing the crest and strong face pattern. This differs from the display of the plainer-faced goldcrest, which bows its head to emphasise the crest. The breeding territory is about {{convert|0.5|ha|acre|abbr=off}}, and may overlap with neighbouring goldcrest territories. Firecrests will sometimes defend their territories against goldcrests with the crest raised and a great deal of wing-fluttering,<ref name= Simms/> but the amount of actual competition between the species may not be very great. A Spanish study suggested that territorial conflicts between the species, and other phenomena like males singing mixed or alternating songs, were most frequent when one species locally far outnumbered the other;<ref name= Becker>{{cite journal| last= Becker | first= Peter H | year= 1977 | title= Verhalten auf Lautäußerungen der Zwillingsart, interspezifische Territorialität und Habitatansprüche von Winter- und Sommergoldhähnchen (''Regulus regulus'', ''R. ignicapillus'') |language = de | journal= Journal für Ornithologie | volume= 118 | issue = 3 | pages= 233–260 | doi = 10.1007/BF01643534| s2cid= 29890907 }}</ref> in other circumstances, the two kinglets learned to ignore each other's songs. In his courtship display the male firecrest raises his crest, points it towards his mate and hovers over her before mating takes place.<ref name= Simms/>

The nest is often suspended from a hanging branch usually at no great altitude, although [[Eric Simms (ornithologist)|Eric Simms]] reported nests at heights from {{convert|2.5|to|20|m|ft|abbr=on}}.<ref name= Simms/> Firecrests may favour breeding close to [[Eurasian goshawk]] nests. That large bird will prey on potential predators of the firecrest such as [[Eurasian sparrowhawk]]s, and nest robbers like [[eastern grey squirrel|grey squirrel]]s, [[Eurasian jay]]s and [[great spotted woodpecker]]s.<ref name= BB103>{{cite journal| last= Mawson | first= Geoff |date=April 2010| title= Apparent nesting association of Northern Goshawks and Firecrests | journal= British Birds | volume= 103 | pages= 243–244}}</ref> As is typical for the family, the [[bird nest|nest]] is a closed cup built in three layers with a small entrance hole near its top. The nest's outer layer is made from moss, small twigs, cobwebs and lichen, the spider webs also being used to attach the nest to the thin branches that support it. The middle layer is moss, and this is lined with feathers (up to 3,000) and hair.<ref name=BWP/> The nest is smaller, deeper and more compact than that of the goldcrest, about {{convert|8|cm|in|abbr=on}} across and {{convert|5|–|7|cm|in|abbr=on}} deep, with a wall thickness of about {{convert|2|cm|in|abbr=on}}.<ref name= Simms/> The nest is constructed by the female alone, although the male will accompany the female while she builds the nest over a period of a few days to three weeks.<ref name =hbw/>

Laying starts in western Europe at the end of April, and in the east of the range in late May; second [[clutch (eggs)|clutches]], which are common, commence in June to July.<ref name=BWP/> The eggs are pink with very indistinct reddish markings at the broad end,<ref name= Seebohm >{{cite book | last = Seebohm | first = Henry | author-link = Henry Seebohm | title = Coloured Figures of the Eggs of British Birds | url = https://archive.org/details/colouredfigureso00seeb | year = 1896| publisher = Sheffield: Pawson and Brailsford |page = [https://archive.org/details/colouredfigureso00seeb/page/209 209], plate 53 }}</ref> unlike those of Madeira firecrest which are described as like those of a ''[[Leaf-warbler|Phylloscopus]]'' warbler (white with some brown speckles).<ref name= Simms>{{cite book | last = Simms | first = Eric |title = British Warblers (New Naturalist Series) | year = 1985| location = London| publisher = Collins | page = 370 |isbn =978-0-00-219810-3 }}</ref> The eggs are {{convert|14|x|10|mm|in|abbr=on}} and weigh {{convert|0.7|g|oz|abbr=on}}, of which 5% is shell.<ref name = BTO>{{cite web|title= Firecrest '' Regulus ignicapilla '' [Temminck, 1820]|work= BTOWeb BirdFacts |date= 16 July 2010 | url= http://blx1.bto.org/birdfacts/results/bob13150.htm |publisher=[[British Trust for Ornithology]] |access-date=17 October 2010}}</ref> The clutch size in Europe is 7–12 eggs, but probably smaller in northwest Africa. The female incubates the eggs for 14.5 to 16.5 days to hatching, and broods the chicks, which [[fledge]] eight to ten days later. Both parents feed the chicks and fledged young.<ref name=BWP/> This species becomes sexually mature after one year, and has a life expectancy of less than two years.<ref name = BTO/>

Although their ranges overlap substantially, [[hybrid (biology)|hybridisation]] between goldcrests and firecrests seems to be prevented by differences in courtship rituals and different facial patterns. Even in aviary studies in which a female goldcrest was given an artificial eyestripe to facilitate mating with a male firecrest, the chicks were never raised by the mixed pair, and appeared to be poorly adapted compared to the parent species.<ref name =hbw/>

=== Feeding ===

[[File:Orchesella cincta.jpg|upright|thumb|Firecrest parents mainly feed young chicks during their first four days of life with [[springtail]]s (average length 4&nbsp;mm) after which time larger food items are given as the chicks grow.]]
All species of kinglet are almost exclusively [[insectivore|insectivorous]], preying on small [[arthropod]]s with soft [[cuticle]]s, such as [[springtail]]s, [[aphid]]s and spiders. They also feed on the [[Pupa#Cocoon|cocoon]]s and eggs of spiders and insects, and occasionally take pollen. All species will hover to catch flying insects. Although the similarly sized firecrest and goldcrest are often found together, there are a number of factors that reduce direct competition for food. Common firecrests prefer larger prey than goldcrests. Although both will take trapped insects from spider webs on autumn migration, firecrests will also eat the large [[orb-weaver spider|orb-web spider]]s (on rare occasions kinglets have been found stuck in a spider web, either unable to move or dead).<ref name = hbw/>

The common firecrest feeds in trees, exploiting mainly the upper surface of branches in [[pinophyta|conifer]]ous habitat and of leaves in deciduous trees. This is in contrast to the goldcrest, which frequently feeds on the undersides of branches and leaves. In winter, flocks of common firecrests cover a given distance about three times faster than do goldcrests, and ignore the smallest prey items preferred by their relative; large invertebrates are killed by beating them repeatedly against a branch.<ref name = hbw/> The differences in behaviour are facilitated by subtle morphological differences; firecrests have broader bills with longer [[feather|rictal bristle]]s (which protect a bird's eye from food items it is trying to capture), and these features reflect the larger prey taken by the species. The firecrest's less forked tail may reflect its longer episodes of hovering while hunting. Firecrests forage more often while standing, and have a foot better adapted for perching, whereas the goldcrest's longer hind toe reflects its habit of moving vertically along branches while feeding. It also has a deep grooves in the soles of its feet capable of gripping individual needles, while firecrests have a smoother underside to the foot.<ref name= Leisler >{{cite journal | last= Leisler | first= Bernd |author2=Thaler, Ellen | year=1982 | title= Differences in morphology and foraging behaviour in the goldcrest ''Regulus regulus'' and firecrest ''R. ignicapillus'' | journal= Annales Zoologici Fennici | volume= 19 | pages= 277–284 | url = http://www.sekj.org/PDF/anzf19/anz19-277-284.pdf }}</ref>

Young common firecrests are fed almost exclusively with springtails; larger food items are not accepted, and spiders are occasionally regurgitated. From the fifth day onwards, the nestling diet includes aphids and a high amount of snail shells, the latter being needed for bone growth. After the second week, the food includes larger moths and caterpillars, as well as various arthropods typically avoided by adults, such as [[Opiliones|harvestmen]], [[earwig]]s, and [[centipede]]s.<ref name="hbw"/>

In winter, the firecrest joins loose flocks of other wanderers such as [[tit (bird)|tits]] and warblers.<ref name= Baker/> This kinglet, like other species that prefer [[mixed-species foraging flock]]s in winter, hunts over a greater range of heights and vegetation types than when feeding alone. For species that tend to feed in flocks, foraging success while in a flock was about twice that for solitary birds.<ref name=Herrera>{{cite journal|last=Herrera |first=Carlos M |year=1979 |title=Ecological aspects of heterospecific flocks formation in a Mediterranean passerine bird community |journal=Oikos |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=85–96 |url=http://www.plant-animal.es/pdfs/Herrera.1979.Oikos.pdf |doi=10.2307/3544516 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720143131/http://www.plant-animal.es/pdfs/Herrera.1979.Oikos.pdf |archive-date=2011-07-20 |jstor=3544516 }}</ref> In some areas, wintering birds have developed the habit of coming to feeding stations and bird tables for fatty food, sometimes with goldcrests or warblers such as the [[common chiffchaff]] and [[blackcap]].<ref name= Simms/> The kinglet's digestive system is adapted to an entirely insectivorous diet, whereas ''[[typical warbler|Sylvia]]'' warblers include fruit in their autumn diet. A Spanish study compared that genus with the insectivorous firecrest and ''[[Leaf-warbler|Phylloscopus]]'' warblers. The results showed that, relative to body weight, the insect-eaters had shorter intestines, but longer gut passage times than the ''Sylvia'' species. The insect-eaters are also generally slightly smaller than the [[omnivore]]s.<ref name= Jordano >{{cite journal | last= Jordano | first= Pedro | year= 1987 | title= Frugivory, external morphology and digestive system in Mediterranean sylviid warblers ''Sylvia'' spp. | journal= Ibis | volume= 129 | pages= 175–189 | url= http://ebd10.ebd.csic.es/pdfs/Jordano_1987_Ibis_Sylvia%20morphology%20and%20frugivory.pdf | doi= 10.1111/j.1474-919x.1987.tb03199.x | hdl= 10261/45050 | access-date= 2010-10-28 | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20130620203613/http://ebd10.ebd.csic.es/pdfs/Jordano_1987_Ibis_Sylvia%20morphology%20and%20frugivory.pdf | archive-date= 2013-06-20 | url-status= dead | hdl-access= free }}</ref>

=== Voice ===
The [[Bird vocalization|contact call]] is three or four thin high notes, similar to that of [[goldcrest]], but slightly lower in pitch,<ref name= Mullarney>{{cite book | last = Mullarney | first = Killian | author-link = Killian Mullarney |author2=Svensson, Lars |author2-link=Lars Svensson (ornithologist)|author3=Zetterstrom, Dan|author3-link=Zetterstrom, Dan|author4=Grant, Peter J.|author4-link=Grant, Peter J. |title = Collins Bird Guide | year = 1999 | publisher = London: Collins | page = 336| isbn = 978-0-00-219728-1| title-link = Collins Bird Guide }}</ref> ''zit-zit-zit'' rather than ''see-see-see''.<ref name= Simms/> The song is a succession of call notes in a longer and slightly more varied sequence. Typically there are 11–14 notes per song, becoming louder and faster, with the final three notes slightly different from the preceding ones: ''zit-zit-zit-zit-zit-zit-zit-zit-zit-zit-zirt.zirt.zirt''. The song usually lasts 0.5–2.5 seconds, shorter than the 3.5–4.0 seconds for the goldcrest, and may be repeated up to eight times a minute. In May and June, singing is most frequent after dawn, but continues less often throughout the day. Later in the breeding season, song becomes largely confined to the morning.<ref name= Simms/>

The song of the Mediterranean subspecies of common firecrest, ''R.&nbsp;i.&nbsp;balearicus'', is very similar to that of the [[Subspecies#Nomenclature|nominate]] form, but one factor in separating the Madeiran firecrest from common firecrest is that the island bird's song is divided into three phrases, two of them consisting of modified display and anger calls. Its display calls also use a larger frequency range and more [[harmonic]]s than those of the continental subspecies.<ref name= Packert>{{cite journal | last= Päckert | first= Martin |author2=Martens, Jochen|author3=Hofmeister, Tanja |date=January 2001 | title= Lautäußerungen der Sommergoldhähnchen von den Inseln Madeira und Mallorca (''Regulus ignicapillus madeirensis, R. i. balearicus'') | journal= [[Journal für Ornithologie]] |language = de | volume= 142| issue = 1 | pages= 16–29 | doi =  10.1046/j.1439-0361.2000.00054.x}}</ref><ref name= Constantine>{{cite book | last = Constantine | first = Mark |author2=The Sound Approach| title = The Sound Approach to Birding: A Guide to Understanding Bird Sound | year = 2006 | location = Poole |  publisher = The Sound Approach | isbn =978-90-810933-1-6 |page =137 }}</ref> Male goldcrests and Madeiran firecrests sometimes show a territorial response to recordings of the songs or calls of the common firecrest, but the reverse is apparently not true, because the songs of the common firecrest are simpler in construction than those of its relatives.<ref name= Packert/><ref name= Simms/>

=== Predators and parasites ===
[[File:Accipiter nisus Meneer Zjeroen.jpg|upright|thumb|The [[Eurasian sparrowhawk]] is a major predator of small songbirds.]]

Throughout the firecrest's range, the main predator of small woodland birds is the Eurasian sparrowhawk, which takes avian prey as up to 98% of its diet.<ref name= gensbol>{{cite book | last = Génsbøl| first = Benny | title = Birds of Prey | year = 1987 |location = London | publisher = Collins | isbn = 978-0-00-219176-0 |pages = 154–156 }}</ref> The [[tawny owl]] relies more on mammalian catches, but about one-third of its food is forest birds.<ref name=Voous >{{cite book | last = Voous | first = Karel H | author-link = Karel H. Voous | others= Cameron, Ad (illustrator) |title = Owls of the Northern Hemisphere| year = 1988 |location = London | publisher = Collins | isbn =978-0-00-219493-8 |pages = 209–219}}</ref> Eggs and young may be taken by grey squirrels, Eurasian jays and great spotted woodpeckers.<ref name= BB103/> The firecrest appears to be virtually unknown as a [[host (biology)|host]] of the [[common cuckoo]], a widespread European [[brood parasite]].<ref name=soler1>{{cite journal | last= Soler | first= Juan Josė |author2=Møller, Anders Pape |date=January 1995 | title= A comparative analysis of the evolution of variation in appearance of eggs of European passerines in relation to brood parasitism  | journal= Behavioral Ecology | volume= 7 | issue = 1 | pages= 89–94 | doi=10.1093/beheco/7.1.89| doi-access= free }}</ref><ref name=soler2>{{cite journal|last=Soler |first=Juan Josė |author2=Møller, Anders Pape |author3=Soler, Manuel |year=1999 |title=A comparative study of host selection in the European cuckoo ''Cuculus canorus'' |journal=Oecologia |volume=118 |issue=2 |pages=265–276 |url=http://www.eeza.csic.es/eeza/documentos/soler_cuckoo%20host%20selection.pdf |doi=10.1007/s004420050727 |pmid=28307703 |bibcode=1999Oecol.118..265S |s2cid=17699909 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100921063630/http://www.eeza.csic.es/eeza/documentos/soler_cuckoo%20host%20selection.pdf |archive-date=2010-09-21 }}</ref>

The invasive [[Argentine ant]] (''Linepithema humile'') is common in the Mediterranean area, and reduces [[arthropod]] numbers by removing most native ant species. The reduction in prey items is greatest in the tree canopy, and has a greater effect on species like the firecrest that feed high in the foliage. Less food is available for chicks, and parents have to spend more time foraging.<ref name= Argentine >{{cite journal | last= Estany-Tigerström | first= David |author2=Bas, Josep Maria|author3=Pons, Pere | year=2010 | title= Does Argentine ant invasion affect prey availability for foliage-gleaning birds?  | journal= Biological Invasions | volume= 12 | issue= 4 | pages= 827–839 | doi = 10.1007/s10530-009-9504-6| s2cid= 40826707 }}</ref>

Data on specific parasites of the firecrest is lacking, but the widespread [[moorhen flea]], ''Dasypsyllus gallinulae'' has been recorded in a related ''Regulus'' species.<ref name = Rothschild >{{cite book |title= Fleas, Flukes and Cuckoos. A study of bird parasites |author= Rothschild, Miriam |author-link= Miriam Rothschild |author2= Clay, Theresa |year= 1953 |publisher= Collins |location= London |page = 113 |url= https://archive.org/details/fleasflukescucko017900mbp |format = PDF}}</ref> A number of [[feather mite]]s have been recorded in the genus, including ''Proctophyllodes glandarinus'' on firecrest. These mites live on fungi growing on the feathers.<ref name = mites>{{cite web |author1=Schöne, Richard |author2=Schmäschke, Ronald |author3=Sachse, Margit |title=interesting facts |work=federmilben |url=http://www.federmilben.de/en/interestingfacts.html |publisher=Star-Media GmbH |access-date=2010-10-22 |archive-date=2016-03-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303180009/http://www.federmilben.de/en/interestingfacts.html |url-status=dead }} Retrieved 22 October 2010 <!-- The editors of the feather mite site are two veterinary scientists and a veterinary engineer. Two work at the Institute of Parasitology. --></ref><ref name= Krivolutsky>{{cite journal | last= Krivolutsky | first= Dmitri A |author2=Lebedeva, Natalia V | year=2004 | title= Oribatid mites (Oribatei) in bird feathers: Passeriformes | journal= Acta Zoologica Lituanica | volume= 14 | issue = 2 | pages= 19–38 | url =http://ssc-ras.ru/ras/files/pdf/prlcm_kryvolutskylebedevaazl2004-1.pdf | doi=10.1080/13921657.2004.10512577}}</ref> The fungi found on the plumage may feed on the [[keratin]] of the outer feathers or on feather oil.<ref name= fungi>{{cite journal | last= Pugh | first= G J F |date=April 1972| title=   the contamination of birds' feathers by fungi | journal= [[Ibis (journal)|Ibis]] | volume= 114 | issue = 2 | pages= 172&ndash;177 | doi =  10.1111/j.1474-919x.1972.tb02602.x}}</ref>