Editing Craniometry (section)

== Criticisms and revival of past cranial theories in the 20th century ==
[[Image:Morton drawing.png|left|thumb|200px|An 1839 drawing by [[Samuel George Morton]] of "a Negro head… a Caucasian skull… a Mongol head."]]
After being a main influence of US [[white nationalists]], William Ripley's ''The Races of Europe'' (1899) was eventually rewritten in 1939, just before [[World War II]], by Harvard physical anthropologist [[Carleton S. Coon]].{{Cn|date=April 2023}}

[[J. Philippe Rushton]], psychologist, head of the [[Pioneer Fund]], an organization founded in 1937 to promote [[eugenics]],<ref>{{cite book|title=Superior: The Return of Race Science|last=Saini|first=Angela|publisher=Beacon Press|year=2019|page=64|isbn=9780807076910}}</ref><ref name=Lombardo>{{cite journal |last=Lombardo |first=Paul A. |date=2002 |title='The American Breed': Nazi Eugenics and the Origins of the Pioneer Fund |journal=Albany Law Review |volume=65 |issue=3 |pages=743–830 |pmid=11998853 |ssrn=313820}}</ref> and author of the controversial work ''[[Race, Evolution and Behavior]]'' (1995), reanalyzed Gould's retabulation in 1989, and argued that Samuel Morton, in his 1839 book ''Crania Americana'', had shown a pattern of decreasing brain size proceeding from East Asians to Europeans to Africans.

In his 1995 book ''[[Race, Evolution, and Behavior]]'', Rushton alleged an average endocranial volume of 1,364&nbsp;cm<sup>3</sup> for [[East Asians]], 1,347 for [[Caucasian race|white caucasians]] and 1,268 for [[Ethnic groups of Africa|black Africans]]. Other similar claims were previously made by Ho et al. (1980), who measured 1,261 brains at autopsy, and Beals et al. (1984), who measured approximately 20,000 skulls, finding the same [[East Asian]] → European → [[Ethnic groups of Africa|African]] pattern. However, in the same article Beals explicitly warns against using the findings as indicative of racial traits, "If one merely lists such means by geographical region or race, causes of similarity by genogroup and ecotype are hopelessly confounded".<ref name="beals">{{cite journal | last1 = Beals | first1 = Kenneth L. | display-authors = etal | year = 1984 | title = Brain Size, Cranial Morphology, Climate, and Time Machines | journal = Current Anthropology | volume = 25 | issue = 3| page = 306 | jstor=2742800 | doi = 10.1086/203138| s2cid = 86147507 }}</ref> Rushton's findings have also been criticized for questionable methodology, such as lumping in African-Americans with equatorial Africans, as people from hot climates generally have slightly smaller crania.<ref name="brown.uk.com">[http://www.brown.uk.com/brownlibrary/INTEL2.htm Cernovsky, Z. Z. (1997)A critical look at intelligence research, In Fox, D. & Prilleltensky, I. (Eds.) Critical Psychology, London: Sage, ps 121–133.]</ref> Rushton also compared equatorial Africans from the poorest and least educated areas of Africa against Asians from the wealthiest and most educated areas of Asia and areas with colder climates which generally induce larger cranium sizes in evolution.<ref name="brown.uk.com"/> According to [[Zack Cernovsky]], from one of Rushton's own study it emerges that the average cranial capacity for North American blacks is similar to the average for Caucasians from comparable climatic zones.<ref name="brown.uk.com"/><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Rushton | first1 = J. P. | title = Race, Brain Size, and Intelligence: A Rejoinder to Cain and Vanderwolf | journal = Personality and Individual Differences | year = 1990 | volume = 11 | issue = 8 | pages = 785–794 | doi=10.1016/0191-8869(90)90186-u}}</ref> Per Cernovsky, people from different climates tend to have minor differences in brain size, but these do not necessarily imply differences in intelligence; for instance, though women tend to have smaller brains than men they also have more neural complexity and loading in certain areas of the brain than men.<ref>[http://www.baylor.edu/content/services/document.php/104508.pdf Insider – The Female Brain, By Ivory E. Welcome, MBA Candidate December 2009]</ref><ref>{{cite journal | pmc = 2711771 | pmid=17544382 | doi=10.1016/j.biopsych.2007.03.001 | volume=62 | title=Evolving knowledge of sex differences in brain structure, function, and chemistry | date=October 2007 | journal=Biol. Psychiatry | pages=847–55 | last1 = Cosgrove | first1 = KP | last2 = Mazure | first2 = CM | last3 = Staley | first3 = JK| issue=8 }}</ref>