Editing Crash test dummy (section)

==Dummy evolution==

There are a growing number of specialized dummies used to gather data not only for men but for women, children, the elderly and the obese; and data for rib impacts, and spinal impacts. THOR is a very advanced dummy because it uses sensors and has a humanlike spine, pelvis, and can capture neck data in 6DOF (six degrees of freedom) motion.<ref name="youtube.com">{{cite web | url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iATklZ715H8&list=PLQ9gzOKWIgpSS5LynFPODjmOVCVWdPgNf | title=How Crash Test Dummies Evolved to Cost $1 Million |publisher=[[CNBC]] |website=[[YouTube]] |date=2022-03-18}}</ref> Special classes of dummies called Hybrid IIIs are designed to research the effects of frontal impacts, and are less useful in assessing the effects of other types of impact, such as side impacts, rear impacts, or rollovers. Hybrid IIIs use dummies that directed towards a specific age, for example, a typical ten-year-old, six-year-old, three-year-old, and a grown man.<ref name=":0" /> The equipment that is put on, or in, dummies to gather data is also evolving and the most up-to-date equipment is embedded inside the ATD to create a more biofidelic response for more accurate data.

===Sierra Sam and VIP-50===
[[File:sam4.jpg|thumbnail|upright|150px|Sierra Sam tested [[ejection seat]]s.]]
The information gleaned from cadaver research and animal studies had already been put to some use in the construction of human [[simulacrum|simulacra]] as early as 1949, when "Sierra Sam"<ref>{{cite web|url=http://contrails.iit.edu/history/Roswell/index.html|title=Collection – History – Roswell|access-date=2 June 2015|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150529182257/http://contrails.iit.edu/History/Roswell/index.html|archive-date=29 May 2015}}</ref> was created by [[Samuel W. Alderson]] at his Alderson Research Labs (ARL) and Sierra Engineering Co. to test aircraft [[ejection seat]]s, aviation helmets<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20110522052005/http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?AD=ADA061799&Location=U2&doc=GetTRDoc.pdf Evaluation of Sierra Engineering Co. Lightweight Helmet]</ref> and pilot restraint harnesses. This testing involved the use of high acceleration to {{convert|1000|km/h|mph|abbr=on}} rocket sleds, beyond the capability of human volunteers to tolerate. In the early 1950s, Alderson and Grumman produced a dummy which was used to conduct crash tests in both motor vehicles and aircraft. The original "Sierra Sam" was a 95th percentile male dummy (heavier and taller than 95% of human males).

Alderson went on to produce what it called the VIP-50 series, built specifically for [[General Motors Corporation|General Motors]] and [[Ford Motor Company|Ford]], but which was also adopted by the [[National Bureau of Standards]]. Sierra followed up with a competitor dummy, a model it called "Sierra Stan".

===Hybrid I and II===
[[File:HS117-399.jpg|thumb|left|Two uninstrumented Hybrid II 50th percentile male dummies used as ballast in a low speed collision test.]]

General Motors, who had taken over the impetus in developing a reliable and durable dummy, found neither Sierra model satisfied its needs. GM engineers decided to combine the best features of the VIP series and Sierra Stan, and so in 1971 Hybrid I was born.
Hybrid I was what is known as a "50th [[percentile]] male" dummy. That is to say, it modeled an average male in height, mass, and proportion. In cooperation with the [[Society of Automotive Engineers]] (SAE), GM shared this design with its competitors.

Since then, considerable work has gone into creating more and more sophisticated dummies. Hybrid II was introduced in 1972, with improved shoulder, spine, and knee responses, and more rigorous documentation. Hybrid II became the first dummy to comply with the American Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standard (FMVSS) for testing of automotive lap and shoulder belts. In 1973, a 50th percentile male dummy was released, and the [[National Highway Traffic Safety Administration]] (NHTSA)<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nhtsa.dot.gov |title=NHTSA|date=2019-03-13}}</ref> undertook an agreement with [[General Motors Corporation|General Motors]] to produce a model exceeding Hybrid II's performance in a number of specific areas.<ref>[http://edocket.access.gpo.gov/cfr_2007/octqtr/pdf/49cfr572.31.pdf NHTSA 49 CFR 572.31 Subpart E—Hybrid III Test Dummy]</ref>

Though a great improvement over cadavers for standardized testing purposes, Hybrid I and Hybrid II were still very crude, and their use was limited to developing and testing [[seat belt]] designs. A dummy was needed which would allow researchers to explore injury-reduction strategies. It was this need that pushed GM researchers to develop the current Hybrid line, the Hybrid III family of crash test dummies.

===Hybrid III family===
[[File:Hybridlll.jpg|thumbnail|The original 50th percentile male Hybrid III's family expanded to include a 95th percentile male, 5th percentile female, and ten, six, and three-year-old child dummies.]]
{{main article|Hybrid III}}
Hybrid III, the 50th percentile male dummy which made its first appearance in 1976, is the familiar crash test dummy, and he is now a family man. If he could stand upright, he would be {{convert|175|cm|ftin|abbr=off}} tall and would have a [[mass]] of {{convert|77|kg|lb|abbr=on}}. He occupies the driver's seat in all the Insurance Institute for Highway Safety (IIHS)<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.iihs.org|title=New HLDI study: Texting laws don't reduce crashes |publisher=iihs.org |date=September 28, 2010 |access-date=21 October 2010}}</ref> {{convert|65|km/h|mph|abbr=on}} offset frontal crash tests. He is joined by a "big brother", the 95th percentile Hybrid III, at {{convert|188|cm|ftin|abbr=off}} and {{convert|100|kg|lb|abbr=on}}. [[Ms.]] Hybrid III is a 5th percentile female dummy, at a diminutive {{convert|152|cm|ft|abbr=on}} tall and {{convert|50|kg|lb|abbr=on}}.<ref>Mello, Tara Baukus (December 5, 2000).[http://www.edmunds.com/apps/vdpcontainers/do/vdp/articleId=43819/pageNumber=1 The Female Dummy: No Brains, But A Real Lifesaver]  {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060220103359/http://www.edmunds.com/apps/vdpcontainers/do/vdp/articleId%3D43819/pageNumber%3D1 |date=February 20, 2006 }}. Retrieved April 18, 2006.</ref> The three Hybrid III child dummies represent a ten-year-old, {{convert|21|kg|lb|abbr=on}} six-year-old, and a {{convert|15|kg|lb|abbr=on}} three-year-old. The child models are very recent additions to the crash test dummy family; because so little hard data are available on the effects of accidents on children and such data are very difficult to obtain, these models are based in large part on [[Estimation theory|estimates]] and [[approximation]]s. The primary benefit provided by the Hybrid III is improved neck response in forward flexion and head rotation that better simulates the human.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20090212015812/http://stinet.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?AD=ADA255544&Location=U2&doc=GetTRDoc.pdf Hybrid II and Hybrid III Dummy Neck Properties for Computer Modeling] (February 1992)</ref>

The Hybrid III dummy for three-, six- and ten-year-olds has its limitations, and does not provide the same physical outcome a human would encounter with a frontal crash. It was found that when testing the three-year-old Hybrid III dummy, it showed that frontal crashes would most likely cause cervical spine injuries. When using data from the real world, the results did not match up to the Hybrid III stimulation injuries. To get around this, THUMS was created which stands for Total Human Model of Safety.<ref name=":0" /> The model can be easily relatable to the human body anatomically especially focusing on the human spine upon impact. Clinical testing and experiments are more accurate than a dummy and more reliable case studies can be implemented with this model. The model is based on a male only, and mimics human tissues and organs. This model is accurate for males in the 50th percentile, and it can not easily relate to three-year-olds when dealing with neck and head injuries, which are responsible for 57 percent of car crash fatalities.<ref name=":0">{{cite thesis |last1=Zhang |first1=Wencheng |title=Incorporation of biomechanical child cadaver neck behaviour in a child model and injury prediction in vehicle frontal crash |date=2008 |url=https://scholar.uwindsor.ca/etd/7890/ }}{{page needed|date=February 2024}}</ref> Instead, the FE model can be appropriately implemented for these criteria.<ref name=":2" />

There are certain testing procedures for Hybrid IIIs to ensure that they obtain a correct humanlike neck flexure, and to ensure that they would react to a crash in a similar way that human bodies would. {{citation needed|date=April 2019}}

=== Test device for Human Occupant Restraint (THOR) ===
==== THOR-50M mid-size male ====
[[File:THOR-50M & THOR-5F Crash Test Dummies.jpg|alt=THOR-50M & THOR-5F Crash Test Dummies|thumb|THOR-50M & THOR-5F Crash Test Dummies]]
THOR is an advanced crash test dummy designed to expand the Hybrid-III test dummy capabilities in assessing frontal impacts. THOR-50M, the mid-size male, was created to improve human-like anthropometry and increase the instrumentation for mitigating injury.<ref name="THOR {{!}} NHTSA">{{Cite web |title=THOR {{!}} NHTSA |url=https://www.nhtsa.gov/biomechanics-trauma/thor |access-date=2022-05-18 |website=www.nhtsa.gov |language=en}}</ref>

Although development started in the 1990s, with the latest design update by the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) in contract with [[Humanetics]], the first new prototypes were delivered in 2013.<ref>{{Cite report |url=https://one.nhtsa.gov/DOT/NHTSA/NVS/Biomechanics%20&%20Trauma/NHTSA_THOR_update_2013-09-30.pdf |title=NHTSA THOR Update |last=Parent |first=Dan |date=2013-09-30 |publisher=[[National Highway Traffic Safety Administration]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220723225327/https://one.nhtsa.gov/DOT/NHTSA/NVS/Biomechanics%20&%20Trauma/NHTSA_THOR_update_2013-09-30.pdf |archive-date=2022-07-23}}</ref> Since then, Europe's New Car Assessment Program became the first agency to adopt THOR into testing protocols, replacing the Hybrid III mid-sized male in the driver's seat.<ref>{{Cite report |url=https://cdn.euroncap.com/media/61124/tb-026-thor-specification-and-certification-v12.pdf |title=THOR Specification and Certification |last1=Been |first1=B |last2=Ellway |first2=J |date=2020-11-24 |volume=1 |publisher=[[Euro NCAP]] |issue=2 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220303040656/https://cdn.euroncap.com/media/61124/tb-026-thor-specification-and-certification-v12.pdf |archive-date=2022-03-03 |url-status=live}}</ref>

====THOR-5F small female====
The small female version of THOR is based on the technology of the male version, but has more female-like anthropometry to represent females in frontal impact testing.<ref name="THOR {{!}} NHTSA"/> 
[[File:ATD Family.png|thumb|Current family of advanced crash test dummies used today.]]
The female THOR and the lack of female test dummies has received new interest as gender equity issues have emerged citing the lack of female crash test dummies and availability of new technology in regulation testing.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Democratic lawmakers push U.S. Transportation Secretary for faster changes to crash test dummy standards |url=https://www.investigatetv.com/2022/03/14/democratic-lawmakers-push-us-transportation-secretary-faster-changes-crash-test-dummy-standards/ |access-date=2022-05-18 |website=InvestigateTV |date=14 March 2022 |language=en}}</ref> A Center for Applied Biomechanics, University of Virginia, paper published in 2019 citing the increased risk of injury in female automobile occupants which started a fresh examination into female impact testing and protection.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Forman |first1=Jason |last2=Poplin |first2=Gerald S. |last3=Shaw |first3=C. Greg |last4=McMurry |first4=Timothy L. |last5=Schmidt |first5=Kristin |last6=Ash |first6=Joseph |last7=Sunnevang |first7=Cecilia |title=Automobile injury trends in the contemporary fleet: Belted occupants in frontal collisions |journal=Traffic Injury Prevention |date=18 August 2019 |volume=20 |issue=6 |pages=607–612 |doi=10.1080/15389588.2019.1630825 |pmid=31283362 |s2cid=195844967 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

The THOR dummies can accommodate 150+ channels of [[data collection]] throughout their bodies.<ref>{{Cite web |title=THOR-5F |url=https://humanetics.humaneticsgroup.com/products/anthropomorphic-test-devices/frontal-impact/thor-5f |access-date=2022-05-18 |website=humanetics.humaneticsgroup.com |language=en-US}}</ref>

=== Warrior Injury Assessment Manikin (WIAMan) ===

[[File:WIAMan Warrior Injury Assessment Manikn.jpg|thumb|U.S. Army Warrior Injury Assessment Manikin (WIAMan)]]
WIAMan is a blast test dummy designed to assess potential skeletal injuries of soldiers exposed to under-body blast (UBB). Designed jointly by the U.S. Army and [[Diversified Technical Systems]] (DTS), the project includes an anthropomorphic test device and in-dummy data acquisition and sensor solution.<ref name=":3">{{Cite news|url=https://www.armytimes.com/news/your-army/2017/05/31/army-creates-crash-test-dummy-to-improve-vehicle-safety-for-soldiers/|title=Army creates crash test dummy to improve vehicle safety for soldiers|last=Kalinyak|first=Rachael|date=2017-08-07|work=Army Times|access-date=2018-08-28|language=en-US}}</ref> Since the project started in February 2015, two generations of WIAMan prototypes have undergone a series of lab tests and blast events in the field.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.aerodefensetech.com/component/content/article/adt/features/articles/27963|title=WIAMan – Tech Briefs :: Aerospace & Defense Technology|last=Group|first=Techbriefs Media|website=www.aerodefensetech.com|date=December 2017 |access-date=2018-08-28}}</ref>

With the prototype's delivery in 2018, WIAMan evaluates the effects of under-body blasts involving vehicles, and assess the risk to soldiers in ground vehicle systems. The goal of the WIAMan project is to acquire data that will improve the design of military vehicles and [[personal protective equipment]]. WIAMan and the platform created to simulate an IED explosion are undergoing continued testing.<ref name=":3" />

Test dummies of the past were intended for the auto industry and lacked the same response a human would have to explosions.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.arl.army.mil/www/default.cfm?article=2965|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180702233319/https://www.arl.army.mil/www/default.cfm?article=2965|url-status=dead|archive-date=July 2, 2018|title=WIAMan program celebrates milestone|website=www.arl.army.mil|language=en|access-date=2018-08-28}}</ref> A challenge for the Army has been to develop a crash test dummy that moves enough like a human body to get an accurate result. The Army is working to make the mannequin "biofidelic," meaning it can match human movement. At 5-feet-11-inches tall and 185 lbs., WIAMan is based on the size and movement of an average soldier.<ref name=":3" />

[[U.S. Army Research Laboratory]] and its partners at [[Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory|Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Lab]] completed biofidelity testing in 2017. The purpose of the testing was to develop a dummy capable of predicting specific injury risk to occupants in a vehicle during live-fire tests, based on human response data.<ref name=":3" />

The manikin supports up to 156 channels of data acquisition, measuring different variables a soldier may experience in a vehicle blast. WIAMan includes self-contained internal power and the world's smallest data acquisition system called [https://www.dtsweb.com/slice6-daq/ SLICE6], based on SLICE NANO architecture, eliminating the huge mass of sensor cables normally exiting dummies. The data measured within WIAMan includes forces, moments, accelerations and angular velocity.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.dtsweb.com/wiaman-blast-manikin/|title=Data Acquisition Systems & Sensors for Product Testing – Diversified Technical Systems, Inc.|website=dtsweb.com|date=5 February 2018 |access-date=2018-08-28}}</ref> The DEVCOM Analysis Center (DAC) processes WIAMan data via a software analysis tool called the Analysis of Manikin Data, or AMANDA. On Feb. 2, 2022, AMANDA was accredited by the U.S. Army Test and Evaluation Command for use in live fire test and evaluation.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://soldiersystems.net/2022/05/17/army-injury-assessment-tool-receives-stamp-of-accreditation/ | title=Army Injury Assessment Tool Receives Stamp of Accreditation - Soldier Systems Daily | date=17 May 2022 }}</ref>

=== Female crash test dummies ===
Crash test dummies have been commonly based on males, even though women make up 62% of all car buyers in the USA.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Michelson |first=Joan |title=7 Reasons There Are Few Women In Automotive Leadership: New Research |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/joanmichelson2/2022/01/28/7-reasons-there-are-few-women-in-automotive-leadership--new-research/ |access-date=2024-04-08 |website=Forbes |language=en}}</ref> This leads to oversights in automotive safety and ergonomics for this demographic. In 2003, the [[National Highway Traffic Safety Administration]] (NHTSA) introduced the female Hybrid III into collision testing. This dummy was a scaled-down version of its male counterpart, representing the 5th percentile of women based on mid-1970s standards.<ref name="Bergmann">{{Cite web |last=Bergmann |first=Andy |date=2019-10-23 |title=The Crash Test Bias: How Male-Focused Testing Puts Female Drivers at Risk |url=https://www.consumerreports.org/car-safety/crash-test-bias-how-male-focused-testing-puts-female-drivers-at-risk/ |access-date=2024-04-08 |website=Consumer Reports |language=en-US}}</ref>

In 2002, [[Volvo]] pioneered the development of a virtual crash test dummy representing a midsized pregnant female. Collaborating with [[Chalmers University of Technology]], they also crafted a computer model of an average-sized female to advance their whiplash protection system.<ref name="Bergmann"/> Other car companies have also adopted computer models in their safety testing to simulate crashes.

In May 2023, the world's first female crash test dummy was used in a crash test at the [[Swedish National Road and Transport Research Institute]] in [[Linköping]], Sweden. [[Astrid Linder|Dr. Astrid Linder]] led the team of researchers to develop the female crash test dummy which represented the height and weight of women at the 50th and 25th percentiles.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Epker |first=Eva |title=Fasten Your Seatbelts: A Female Car Crash Test Dummy Represents Average Women For The First Time In 60+ Years |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/evaepker/2023/09/12/fasten-your-seatbelts-a-female-car-crash-test-dummy-represents-average-women-for-the-first-time-in-60-years/ |access-date=2024-04-08 |website=Forbes |language=en}}</ref> The model was created after crash statistics showed that female bodies are more prone to other injuries than male, such as [[Whiplash (medicine)|whiplash]]. The female dummy was developed with the help of an [[European Union|EU]] project.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Balcer Bednarska |first1=Jaqueline |last2=Brantemo |first2=Axel |title=Svenska forskare visar upp världens första kvinnliga krockdocka |trans-title=Swedish scientists unveil the world's first crash test dummy |url=https://www.svt.se/nyheter/lokalt/ost/svenska-forskare-visar-upp-varldens-forsta-kvinnliga-krockdocka |newspaper=SVT Nyheter |publisher=[[Sveriges Television]] |access-date=31 May 2023 |date=31 May 2023}}</ref>