Editing Desert tortoise (section)

==Lifecycle==

===Reproduction===
Tortoises mate in the spring and autumn. Male desert tortoises grow two large white glands around the chin area, called chin glands, that signify mating season. A male circles around the female, biting her shell in the process. He then climbs upon the female and insert his penis (a white organ, usually only seen upon careful inspection during mating, as it is hidden inside the male and can only be coaxed out with sexual implication) into the [[cloaca]] of a female, which is located around the tail. The male may make grunting noises once atop a female, and may move his front legs up and down in a constant motion, as if playing a drum.{{failed verification|date=June 2018}}<ref>[http://www.desertmuseum.org/programs/tap_tortcare.php Tortoise Adoption Program – Care and Husbandry]. Desertmuseum.org. Retrieved on 2013-01-06.</ref>

[[File:Baby Desert Tortoise (16490346262).jpg|thumb|Hatching baby desert tortoise]]
Months later, the female lays a clutch of four to eight hard-shelled eggs,<ref>[http://www.desertusa.com/june96/du_tort.html Desert Tortoise wildlife information]. DesertUSA. Retrieved on 2013-01-06.</ref> which have the size and shape of ping-pong balls, usually in June or July. The eggs hatch in August or September. Wild female tortoises produce up to three clutches a year depending on the climate. Their eggs incubate from 90 to 135 days;<ref name=eol/> some eggs may overwinter and hatch the following spring. In a laboratory experiment, temperature influenced hatching rates and hatchling sex. Incubation temperatures from {{convert|81|to|88|F|C|order=flip}} resulted in hatching rates exceeding 83%, while incubation at {{convert|77|°F|°C|abbr=on|order=flip}} resulted in a 53% hatching rate. Incubation temperatures less than {{convert|88|°F|°C|abbr=on|order=flip}} resulted in all-male clutches. Average incubation time decreased from 124.7 days at {{convert|77|F|C|order=flip}} to 78.2 days at {{convert|88|°F|°C|abbr=on|order=flip}}.<ref name=r69/>

The desert tortoise is one of the few known tortoises in existence that has been observed engaging in homosexual intercourse<ref name="degenerate_desert_tortoise">Biol. Exuberance: Desert Tortoise - Bagemihl (1999 AD), pages 232, 664</ref> Same-sex intercourse happens in many species, There is no one answer as to why this occurs. One possible explanation for this could be the social component of gaining and establishing dominance.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Rodrigues |first1=João Fabrício Mota |last2=Liu |first2=Yuxiang |date=2016-05-01 |title=An overview of same-sex mounting in turtles and tortoises |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s10164-015-0456-2 |journal=Journal of Ethology |language=en |volume=34 |issue=2 |pages=133–137 |doi=10.1007/s10164-015-0456-2 |s2cid=254145807 |issn=1439-5444|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

===Maturation===
The desert tortoise grows slowly, often taking 16 years or longer to reach about {{convert|20|cm|in|0|abbr=on}} in length. The growth rate varies with age, location, gender and precipitation. It can slow down from 12&nbsp;mm/year for ages 4–8 years to about 6.0&nbsp;mm/year for ages 16 to 20 years. Males and females grow at similar rates; females can grow slightly faster when young, but males grow larger than females.<ref name=fed/>

Desert tortoises reach their reproductive maturity at ages 15 to 20, when they become longer than 18 cm (7 in). However, it is possible for them to mature faster as 10-year-old females that are able to reproduce have been observed.<ref name=fed/>

===Activity===
Their activity depends on location, peaking in late spring for the Mojave Desert and in late summer to fall in the Sonoran Desert; some populations exhibit two activity peaks during one year. Desert tortoises [[Brumation|brumate]] during winters, roughly from November to February–April. Females begin brumating later and emerge earlier than males; juveniles emerge from brumation earlier than adults.<ref name=fed/><ref name=Deane2018/>

Temperature strongly influences desert tortoise activity level. Although desert tortoises can survive body temperatures from below freezing to over {{convert|104|°F|°C|abbr=on|order=flip}}, most activity occurs at temperatures from {{convert|79|to|93|F|C|order=flip}}. The influence of temperature is reflected in daily activity patterns, with desert tortoises often active late in the morning during spring and fall, early in the morning and late in the evening during the summer, and occasionally becoming active during relatively warm winter afternoons. The activity generally increases after rainfall.<ref name=fed/>

Although desert tortoises spend the majority of their time in shelter, movements of up to {{convert|660|ft|m|order=flip|abbr=on}} per day are common. The common, comparatively short-distance movements presumably represent foraging activity, traveling between burrows, and possibly mate-seeking or other social behaviors. Long-distance movements could potentially represent dispersal into new areas and/or use of peripheral portions of the home range.<ref name=fed/>

===Lifespan===
The lifespan of a desert tortoise can vary from 50 to 80 years.<ref name="fws.gov"/> The main causes of mortality in desert tortoises include predators, human-related causes, diseases, and environmental factors such as drought, flooding, and fire.<ref name=fed/>
[[File:Desert Tortoise at Red Rock Canyon National Conservation Area, NV.jpg|thumb|Desert tortoise with an estimated age of 63 years. Red Rock Canyon National Conservation Area, NV]]
The annual death rate of adults is typically a few percent, but is much higher for young desert tortoises. Only 2–5% of hatchlings are estimated to reach maturity. Estimates of survival from hatching to 1 year of age for Mojave Desert tortoises range from 47 to 51%. Survival of Mojave Desert tortoises from 1 to 4 years of age is 71–89%.<ref name=fed/>

===Diet===
[[File:desert tortoise tds.jpg|thumb]]
[[File:Desert tortoise.jpg|thumb]]
[[File:Young desert tortoise.JPG|thumb|A young desert tortoise]]
The desert tortoise is an [[herbivore]]. Grasses form the bulk of its diet, but it also eats [[herb]]s, annual wildflowers, and new growth of cacti, as well as their fruit and flowers. Rocks and soil are also ingested, perhaps as a means of maintaining intestinal digestive [[bacteria]]  as a source of supplementary [[calcium]] or other minerals. As with birds, stones may also function as [[gastrolith]]s, enabling more efficient digestion of plant material in the stomach.<ref name=fed/>

Much of the tortoise's water intake comes from moisture in the grasses and wildflowers they consume in the spring. A large [[urinary bladder]] can store over 40% of the tortoise's body weight in water, [[urea]], [[uric acid]], and [[nitrogen]]ous wastes. During very dry times, they may give off waste as a white paste rather than a watery [[urine]]. During periods of adequate rainfall, they drink copiously from any pools they find, and eliminate solid urates. The tortoises can increase their body weight by up to 40% after copious drinking.<ref name="auffenberg">{{cite book | title=Tortoise Behavior and Survival| url=https://archive.org/details/tortoisebehavior0000auff| url-access=registration| last=Auffenberg| first=Walter|author-link=Walter Auffenberg| date=1969| publisher=Rand McNally| location=Chicago| oclc=2583084}}</ref> Adult tortoises can survive a year or more without access to water.<ref name=fed/> During the summer and dry seasons, they rely on the water contained within cactus fruits and mesquite grass. To maintain sufficient water, they reabsorb water in their bladders, and move to humid burrows in the morning to prevent water loss by evaporation.<ref name=auffenberg/>

A desert tortoise can empty its bladder as one of its defense mechanisms.<ref name=mojavetortoise>{{cite web|url=https://www.nps.gov/moja/learn/nature/desert-tortoise.htm|website=Mojave National Preserve California|publisher=National Park Service|title=Desert Tortoise (Gopherus agassizii)|access-date=11 May 2023|date=21 March 2022}}</ref> This can leave the tortoise in a very vulnerable condition in dry areas, since the tortoise will no longer have a backup water supply. If a tortoise is seen in the wild, you should not handle, or pick them up unless they are in imminent danger. Handling of tortoises may have consequences for the animal, such as the development of upper respiratory tract infections.<ref name=mojavetortoise/>

===Predation and conservation status===
[[Raven]]s, [[Gila monster]]s, [[kit fox]]es, [[badger]]s, [[Geococcyx|roadrunner]]s, [[coyote]]s, and [[fire ants]] are all natural predators of the desert tortoise. They prey on eggs, juveniles, which are {{convert|2-3|in|mm|order=flip|abbr=on|round=5}} long with a thin, delicate shell, or, in some cases, adults. Ravens are thought to cause significant levels of juvenile tortoise predation in some areas of the Mojave Desert – frequently near urbanized areas.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.latimes.com/local/california/la-me-raven-killing-drone-protects-desert-tortoises-20190609-story.html|title=These tortoise-killing ravens are so smart, scientists must use drones to stop them|last=Sahagun|first=Louis|date=June 10, 2019|website=[[Los Angeles Times]]|access-date=2019-06-10}}</ref> The most significant threats to tortoises include [[urbanization]], disease, [[habitat destruction]] and fragmentation, illegal collection and [[vandalism]] by humans, and habitat conversion from invasive plant species (''[[Brassica tournefortii]]'', ''[[Bromus rubens]]'' and ''Erodium'' spp.).

Desert tortoise populations in some areas have declined by as much as 90% since the 1980s, and the Mojave population is listed as [[Threatened species|threatened]] under the [[Endangered Species Act of 1973]] in 1990,<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Hohman|first1=Judy|last2=Stine|first2=Peter|last3=Bransfield|first3=Ray|last4=Kramer|first4=Karla|author5=((U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service))|journal=Federal Register|volume=55|issue=63|pages=12178–12191|title=Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; Determination of Threatened Status for the Mojave Population of the Desert Tortoise|year=1990}} {{Federal Register|55|12178}}</ref> after being listed as endangered, or threatened in the case of the [[Beaver Dam Slope, Utah]] population, under an emergency rule in 1989.<ref>{{cite journal|journal=Federal Register|title=Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; Emergency Determination of Endangered Status for the Mojave Population of the Desert Tortoise|pages=32326–32331|volume=54|issue=149|year=1989|last1=Campbell|first1=Jackie|author2=((U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service))}} {{Federal Register|54|32326}}</ref>  All desert tortoises are protected under law of the United States based on similarity of appearance to tortoises of the protected Mojave population.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://ecos.fws.gov/ecp/species/4481|title=Desert tortoise (''Gopherus agassizii'')|website=Environmental Conservation Online System|access-date=28 April 2024|publisher=U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service}}</ref>  It is unlawful to touch, harm, harass, or collect wild desert tortoises. It is, however, possible to adopt captive tortoises through the Tortoise Adoption Program in Arizona, [[Utah Division of Wildlife Resources]] Desert Tortoise Adoption Program in Utah, Joshua Tree Tortoise Rescue Project in California, or through [[Bureau of Land Management]] in [[Nevada]]. When adopted in Nevada, they will have a [[Microchip implant (animal)|computer chip]] embedded on their backs for reference. According to Arizona Game and Fish Commission Rule R12-4-407 A.1, they may be possessed if the tortoises are obtained from a captive source which is properly documented. Commission Order 43: Reptile Notes 3: one tortoise per family member.

The [[Fort Irwin National Training Center]] of the US Army expanded into an area that was habitat for about 2,000 desert tortoises, and contained critical desert tortoise habitat (a designation by the US Fish and Wildlife Service). In March 2008, about 650 tortoises were moved by helicopter and vehicle, up to 35&nbsp;km away.<ref>Sahagun, Louis  (2008-10-11) [http://latimesblogs.latimes.com/unleashed/2008/10/army-suspends-r.html "Army suspends relocation of Ft. Irwin tortoises"]. ''[[Los Angeles Times]]''</ref> The Desert Tortoise Preserve Committee protects roughly {{convert|5,000|acre|ha|order=flip|sigfig=1}} of desert tortoise habitat from human activity. This area includes {{convert|4,340|acre|ha|order=flip}} in [[Kern County, California|Kern County]], {{convert|710|acre|ha|order=flip}} in [[San Bernardino County, California|San Bernardino County]], and {{convert|80|acre|ha|order=flip|0}} in [[Riverside County, California|Riverside County]].<ref name="tortoise-tracks.org" />

Another potential threat to the desert tortoise's habitat is a series of proposed [[wind farm|wind]] and [[solar farm]]s.<ref>Simon, Richard (2009-03-25) [https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2009-mar-25-na-desert25-story.html Feinstein wants desert swath off-limits to solar, wind projects], Los Angeles Times</ref> As a result of legislation, solar energy companies have been making plans for huge projects in the desert regions of Arizona, California, Colorado, New Mexico, Nevada, and Utah. The requests submitted to the Bureau of Land Management total nearly {{convert|1800000|acre|km2|abbr=on|order=flip}}.<ref>Woody, Todd (2009-07-13) [http://green.blogs.nytimes.com/2009/07/13/a-solar-land-rush/ A Solar Land Rush], The New York Times</ref>

While tortoises are made to withstand tough conditions and high temperatures, they are unable to cope with the dangers of human development, such as the use of off-roading vehicles. These vehicles that come along at high speeds have the potential to crush and kill tortoises, running over their eggs and burrows and significantly impacting their population. <ref>{{Cite journal |last=Glass-Godwin |date=April 2002 |title=DESERT SURVIVOR? |journal=Science Reference Center}}</ref>{{verification needed|date=April 2024}}