Editing Endocrine disruptor (section)

==Routes of exposure==
[[File:Frozen pink salmon (2).jpg|thumb|Frozen salmon has been shown to have contained several man-made compounds and found to be contaminated with [[Polybrominated diphenyl ethers|PBDE]] along with several other products. ]]

=== Food ===
Food is a major mechanism by which people are exposed to pollutants. Diet is thought to account for up to 90% of a person's [[Polychlorinated biphenyl|PCB]] and [[DDT]] [[body burden]].<ref name="Fürst_2006">{{cite journal | vauthors = Fürst P | title = Dioxins, polychlorinated biphenyls and other organohalogen compounds in human milk. Levels, correlations, trends and exposure through breastfeeding | journal = Mol Nutr Food Res | volume = 50 | issue = 10 | pages = 922–33 |date=October 2006 | pmid = 17009213 | doi = 10.1002/mnfr.200600008 }}</ref> In a study of 32 different common food products from three grocery stores in Dallas, Texas, fish and other animal products were found to be contaminated with [[Polybrominated diphenyl ethers|PBDE]].<ref name="Schecter_2004">{{cite journal |vauthors=Schecter A, Päpke O, Tung KC, Staskal D, Birnbaum L | title = Polybrominated diphenyl ethers contamination of United States food | journal = Environ. Sci. Technol. | volume = 38 | issue = 20 | pages = 5306–11 |date=October 2004 | pmid = 15543730 | doi = 10.1021/es0490830 | bibcode = 2004EnST...38.5306S }}</ref> Since these compounds are fat-soluble, it is likely they are accumulating from the environment in the fatty tissue of animals eaten by humans. Some suspect fish consumption is a major source of many environmental contaminants. Indeed, both wild and farmed salmon from all over the world have been shown to contain a variety of man-made organic compounds.<ref name="pmid14716013">{{cite journal |vauthors=Hites RA, Foran JA, Carpenter DO, Hamilton MC, Knuth BA, Schwager SJ | title = Global assessment of organic contaminants in farmed salmon | journal = Science | volume = 303 | issue = 5655 | pages = 226–9 |date=January 2004 | pmid = 14716013 | doi = 10.1126/science.1091447 | bibcode = 2004Sci...303..226H | s2cid = 24058620 }}</ref> While pesticides are found in many food products, phthalates can also leech into crops, vegetables and fruits from contaminated soil and greenhouse plastic covers.<ref name=":2">{{cite journal | vauthors = Aldegunde-Louzao N, Lolo-Aira M, Herrero-Latorre C | title = Phthalate esters in clothing: A review | journal = Environmental Toxicology and Pharmacology | volume = 108 | pages = 104457 | date = June 2024 | pmid = 38677495 | doi = 10.1016/j.etap.2024.104457 | bibcode = 2024EnvTP.10804457A | doi-access = free }}</ref>
[[File:Water Bottles Image.png|thumb|[[Phthalates]] are found in plastic water bottles.]]
Endocrine disruptors can lead to hormonal changes in the body. Children and infants are more at risk of being affected by these chemicals. [[Phthalates|Phthalates (PAE]]) are used to make plastics last longer, and these plastics can be found in water bottles or in all dairy production stages.<ref name=":02">{{Cite journal |last=Ercan |first=Oya |last2=Tarcin |first2=Gurkan |date=2022-12-01 |title=Overview on Endocrine disruptors in food and their effects on infant's health |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2667009722000136 |journal=Global Pediatrics |volume=2 |pages=100019 |doi=10.1016/j.gpeds.2022.100019 |issn=2667-0097|doi-access=free }}</ref> Drinking water from plastic water bottles is a route of endocrine disruptor exposure. However, there is not a large concern of risk for humans. <ref>{{Cite journal |last=da Silva Costa |first=Rouse |last2=Sainara Maia Fernandes |first2=Tatiana |last3=de Sousa Almeida |first3=Edmilson |last4=Tomé Oliveira |first4=Juliene |last5=Carvalho Guedes |first5=Jhonyson Arruda |last6=Julião Zocolo |first6=Guilherme |last7=Wagner de Sousa |first7=Francisco |last8=do Nascimento |first8=Ronaldo Ferreira |date=2021-04-08 |title=Potential risk of BPA and phthalates in commercial water bottles: a minireview |url=https://iwaponline.com/jwh/article/19/3/411/81381/Potential-risk-of-BPA-and-phthalates-in-commercial |journal=Journal of Water and Health |volume=19 |issue=3 |pages=411–435 |doi=10.2166/wh.2021.202 |issn=1477-8920|doi-access=free }}</ref> [[Phytoestrogens]] are naturally occurring endocrine disrupters found in food. Soybeans contain a type of phytoestrogens called Geinstein.<ref name=":02" /> It has also been found that eggs contain PAEs. In a study done in Turkey, researchers examined three types of eggs: battery, free-range, and organic. They found that battery eggs contained PAEs and free-range eggs had [[DDT]] concentrations in them. DDTs are pesticides and were banned in Turkey in the late 1900s. <ref>{{Cite journal |last=Ercan |first=Oya |last2=Tarcin |first2=Gurkan |date=2022-12-01 |title=Overview on Endocrine disruptors in food and their effects on infant's health |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2667009722000136#sec0006 |journal=Global Pediatrics |volume=2 |pages=100019 |doi=10.1016/j.gpeds.2022.100019 |issn=2667-0097|doi-access=free }}</ref>

=== Indoor air and household dust ===
With the increase in household products containing pollutants and the decrease in the quality of building ventilation, indoor air has become a significant source of pollutant exposure.<ref name=Weschler2009>{{cite journal | vauthors = Weschler CJ | year = 2009 | title = Changes in indoor pollutants since the 1950s | journal = Atmospheric Environment | volume = 43 | issue = 1 | pages = 153–169 | doi = 10.1016/j.atmosenv.2008.09.044 | bibcode = 2009AtmEn..43..153W }}</ref> Residents living in houses with wood floors treated in the 1960s with PCB-based wood finish have a much higher body burden than the general population.<ref name="Rudel_2008">{{cite journal |vauthors=Rudel RA, Seryak LM, Brody JG | title = PCB-containing wood floor finish is a likely source of elevated PCBs in residents' blood, household air and dust: a case study of exposure | journal = Environ Health | volume = 7 | issue = 1| page = 2 | year = 2008 | pmid = 18201376 | pmc = 2267460 | doi = 10.1186/1476-069X-7-2 | doi-access = free | bibcode = 2008EnvHe...7....2R }}</ref> A study of indoor house dust and dryer lint of 16 homes found high levels of all 22 different PBDE [[Congener (chemistry)|congeners]] tested for in all samples.<ref name="pmid15773463">{{cite journal |vauthors=Stapleton HM, Dodder NG, Offenberg JH, Schantz MM, Wise SA | title = Polybrominated diphenyl ethers in house dust and clothes dryer lint | journal = Environ. Sci. Technol. | volume = 39 | issue = 4 | pages = 925–31 |date=February 2005 | pmid = 15773463 | doi = 10.1021/es0486824 | bibcode = 2005EnST...39..925S }}</ref> Recent studies suggest that contaminated house dust, not food, may be the major source of PBDE in the body.<ref name="Anderson_2008">{{cite journal |vauthors=Anderson HA, Imm P, Knobeloch L, Turyk M, Mathew J, Buelow C, Persky V | title = Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDE) in serum: findings from a US cohort of consumers of sport-caught fish | journal = Chemosphere | volume = 73 | issue = 2 | pages = 187–94 |date=September 2008 | pmid = 18599108 | doi = 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2008.05.052 | bibcode = 2008Chmsp..73..187A }}</ref><ref name="Morland_2005">{{cite journal |vauthors=Morland KB, Landrigan PJ, Sjödin A, Gobeille AK, Jones RS, McGahee EE, Needham LL, Patterson DG | title = Body burdens of polybrominated diphenyl ethers among urban anglers | journal =  Environmental Health Perspectives| volume = 113 | issue = 12 | pages = 1689–92 |date=December 2005 | pmid = 16330348 | pmc = 1314906 | doi = 10.1289/ehp.8138 | bibcode = 2005EnvHP.113.1689M }}</ref> One study estimated that ingestion of house dust accounts for up to 82% of humans' PBDE body burden.<ref name="Lorber_2008">{{cite journal | vauthors = Lorber M | title = Exposure of Americans to polybrominated diphenyl ethers | journal = J Expo Sci Environ Epidemiol | volume = 18 | issue = 1 | pages = 2–19 |date=January 2008 | pmid = 17426733 | doi = 10.1038/sj.jes.7500572 | doi-access = free | bibcode = 2008JESEE..18....2L }}</ref>

It has been shown that contaminated house dust is a primary source of lead in young children's bodies.<ref name="pmid7354967">{{cite journal |vauthors=Charney E, Sayre J, Coulter M | title = Increased lead absorption in inner city children: where does the lead come from? | journal = Pediatrics | volume = 65 | issue = 2 | pages = 226–31 |date=February 1980 | pmid = 7354967 | doi = 10.1542/peds.65.2.226 }}</ref> It may be that babies and toddlers ingest more contaminated house dust than the adults they live with, and therefore have much higher levels of pollutants in their systems.
[[File:Paraben-2D-skeletal.png|thumb|100px|The general chemical structure of a [[Paraben]]]]

=== Cosmetics and personal care products ===
Consumer goods are another potential source of exposure to endocrine disruptors. An analysis of the composition of 42 household cleaning and personal care products versus 43 "chemical-free" products has been performed. The products contained 55 different chemical compounds: 50 were found in the 42 conventional samples representing 170 product types, while 41 were detected in 43 "chemical-free" samples representing 39 product types. [[Parabens]], a class of chemicals that has been associated with reproductive-tract issues, were detected in seven of the "chemical-free" products, including three sunscreens that did not list parabens on the label. Vinyl products such as shower curtains were found to contain more than 10% by weight of the compound [[Bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate|DEHP]], which when present in dust has been associated with asthma and wheezing in children. The risk of exposure to EDCs increases as products, both conventional and "chemical-free", are used in combination. "If a consumer used the alternative surface cleaner, tub and tile cleaner, laundry detergent, bar soap, shampoo and conditioner, facial cleanser and lotion, and toothpaste [he or she] would potentially be exposed to at least 19 compounds: 2 parabens, 3 [[phthalate]]s, [[Monoethanolamine|MEA]], [[Diethanolamine|DEA]], 5 [[alkylphenol]]s, and 7 fragrances."<ref name="pmid22398195">{{cite journal |vauthors=Dodson RE, Nishioka M, Standley LJ, Perovich LJ, Brody JG, Rudel RA | title = Endocrine Disruptors and Asthma-Associated Chemicals in Consumer Products | journal = Environmental Health Perspectives| volume = 120| issue = 7| pages = 935–943|date=March 2012 | pmid = 22398195 | pmc = 3404651 | doi = 10.1289/ehp.1104052| bibcode = 2012EnvHP.120..935D }}
* {{lay source |template = cite web|vauthors = Olver C|url =  http://journalistsresource.org/studies/society/health/chemicals-consumer-products |title= Endocrine disruptors and asthma-associated chemicals in consumer products|date = 5 April 2012 |website = Journalist's Resource}}</ref>

An analysis of the endocrine-disrupting chemicals in [[Old Order Mennonite]] women in mid-pregnancy determined that they have much lower levels in their systems than the general population.  Mennonites eat mostly fresh, unprocessed foods, farm without pesticides, and use few or no cosmetics or personal care products. One woman who had reported using hairspray and perfume had high levels of monoethyl phthalate, while the other women all had levels below detection.  Three women who reported being in a car or truck within 48 hours of providing a urine sample had higher levels of diethylhexyl phthalate, which is found in polyvinyl chloride and is used in car interiors.<ref name="pmid22739065">{{cite journal |vauthors=Martina CA, Weiss B, Swan SH | title = Lifestyle behaviors associated with exposures to endocrine disruptors | journal = Neurotoxicology | volume = 33| issue = 6| pages = 1427–1433|date=June 2012 | pmid = 22739065 | doi = 10.1016/j.neuro.2012.05.016 | pmc = 3641683| bibcode = 2012NeuTx..33.1427M }}
* {{lay source |template = cite press release|url = https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2012/06/120626092546.htm  |title= Simpler lifestyle found to reduce exposure to endocrine disrupting chemicals|date = 26 June 2012 |website = Science Daily}}</ref>

=== Clothing ===
A more recent discussion around exposure to EDCs has been around clothing.

[[Greenpeace]] has reported on endocrine-disrupting chemicals in clothing since 2011. In 2013, Greenpeace found detectable levels of [[phthalates]] in 33 out of 35 printed articles of clothing from a global sample.<ref>{{Cite web | vauthors = Brigden K, Hetherington S, Wang M, Santillo D, Johnston P |date=June 2013 |title=Hazardous chemicals in branded textile products on sale in 25 countries/regions during 2013 |url=https://www.greenpeace.org/static/planet4-thailand-stateless/2019/09/192afd2f-a-little-story-about-the-monsters-in-your-closet-technical-report.pdf |publisher=Greenpeace Research Laboratories |publication-date=December 2013}}</ref> A particularly high level of [[Bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate|DEHP]] was found in a t-shirt from [[Primark]] Germany, and a high level of [[Diisononyl phthalate|DINP]] was found in a [[Infant|baby]] [[Infant bodysuit|one-piece]] from [[American Apparel]]. [[Perfluorinated compound|PFCs]] were commonly found in swimwear and waterproof clothing. [[Nonylphenol|NPEs]] were found in most clothing articles as well.

A study by Greenpeace Germany published in 2014 again found high levels of phthalates in athletic gear.<ref>{{Cite web | vauthors = Cobbing M, Brodde K |date=May 2014 |title=A Red Card for sportswear brands |url=https://www.greenpeace.org/static/planet4-international-stateless/2014/05/ba7273a2-detox-football-report.pdf |publisher=Greenpeace e.V.}}</ref> The print of a t-shirt produced in Argentina contained phthalate levels as high as 15%, while a pair of gloves contained 6% phthalates. The study also found high levels of [[PFAS]], [[nonoxynols]] and [[dimethylformamide]] in shoes and boots.

In research published in 2019, Li et al. stated that dermal absorption was the main route for [[Phthalates|phthalate]] exposure in infants,<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Li HL, Ma WL, Liu LY, Zhang Z, Sverko E, Zhang ZF, Song WW, Sun Y, Li YF | title = Phthalates in infant cotton clothing: Occurrence and implications for human exposure | journal = The Science of the Total Environment | volume = 683 | pages = 109–115 | date = September 2019 | pmid = 31129321 | doi = 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.05.132 | bibcode = 2019ScTEn.683..109L }}</ref> including through clothing. It was found that laundering could not remove phthalates completely. Out of the six different types of phthalates that were measured, DEHP and [[Dibutyl phthalate|DBP]] were found to be particularly present in infant clothing.

Tang et al. published research in 2019 that found all 15 different phthalates that were measured in preschoolers' clothing.<ref name=":1">{{cite journal | vauthors = Tang Z, Chai M, Wang Y, Cheng J | title = Phthalates in preschool children's clothing manufactured in seven Asian countries: Occurrence, profiles and potential health risks | journal = Journal of Hazardous Materials | volume = 387 | pages = 121681 | date = April 2020 | pmid = 31757725 | doi = 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2019.121681 | bibcode = 2020JHzM..38721681T }}</ref> Levels were largely independent of country of manufacture though they differed by garment type, fabric composition, and garment color. It was found that "when children wore trousers, long-sleeved shirts, briefs and socks at the same time, the reproductive risks exceeded acceptable level".<ref name=":1" />

In a review of 120 articles from 2014 to 2023 about phthalates in clothing, it was found that while [[screen printing]] ink,<ref>{{cite report | vauthors = Mohapatra P, Gaonkar O | location = New Delhi, India | work = Toxics Link | date = 2021 | page = 41 |title=An Overview of Chemicals in Textiles |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/358804949 }}</ref> vinyl patches and [[Artificial leather|synthetic leather]] may contain 30–60% phthalates, [[Waterproof fabric|waterproof]] items such as infant [[Mattress protector|mattress covers]] also contained very high levels of these chemicals.<ref name=":2" /> It was also noted that manufacturers work to replace more regulated substances, such as DEHP, with newer ones, that may not yet be as tightly regulated.

=== Environment ===
[[File:Landfill Hawaii.jpg|thumb|Plastics in landfills can be absorbed by the soil and can then get into groundwater.]]
Additives added to [[plastics]] during manufacturing may leach into the environment after the plastic item is discarded; additives in [[microplastics]] in the ocean leach into ocean water and in plastics in [[landfills]] may escape and leach into the soil and then into [[groundwater]].<ref name="pmid19528054">{{cite journal | vauthors = Teuten EL, Saquing JM, Knappe DR, Barlaz MA, Jonsson S, Björn A, Rowland SJ, Thompson RC, Galloway TS, Yamashita R, Ochi D, Watanuki Y, Moore C, Viet PH, Tana TS, Prudente M, Boonyatumanond R, Zakaria MP, Akkhavong K, Ogata Y, Hirai H, Iwasa S, Mizukawa K, Hagino Y, Imamura A, Saha M, Takada H | title = Transport and release of chemicals from plastics to the environment and to wildlife | journal = Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences | volume = 364 | issue = 1526 | pages = 2027–45 | year = 2009 | pmid = 19528054 | pmc = 2873017 | doi = 10.1098/rstb.2008.0284 }}</ref><ref name=":4">{{Cite web |title=Endocrine disrupting chemicals, wildlife and the environment |url=https://chemtrust.org/edcs-wildlife/ |access-date=2025-04-13 |website=CHEM Trust |language=en-US}}</ref> The chemicals occur in plastics, pesticides, food containers, children's toys, industrial waste, and some personal care products which can enter and accumulate in the environment by contaminating the soil, air, and water.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Luo |first=Rui |last2=Zhang |first2=Tao |last3=Wang |first3=Li |last4=Feng |first4=Yong |date=2023-11-01 |title=Emissions and mitigation potential of endocrine disruptors during outdoor exercise: Fate, transport, and implications for human health |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0013935123013798 |journal=Environmental Research |volume=236 |pages=116575 |doi=10.1016/j.envres.2023.116575 |issn=0013-9351}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Endocrine Disruptors |url=https://www.niehs.nih.gov/health/topics/agents/endocrine|access-date=2025-04-13 |website=National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences|date=22 July 2024 |language=en}}</ref>