Editing Ethical egoism (section)

==Notable proponents==
The term ''ethical egoism'' has been applied retroactively to philosophers such as [[Bernard de Mandeville]] and to many other [[Dialectical materialism|materialist]]s of his generation, although none of them declared themselves to be egoists. Note that materialism does not necessarily imply egoism, as indicated by [[Karl Marx]], and the many other [[materialist]]s who espoused forms of [[Collectivism and individualism|collectivism]]. It has been argued that ethical egoism can lend itself to [[individualist anarchism]] such as that of [[Benjamin Tucker]], or the combined [[anarcho-communism]] and egoism of [[Emma Goldman]], both of whom were proponents of many egoist ideas put forward by [[Max Stirner]]. In this context, egoism is another way of describing the sense that the common good should be enjoyed by all. However, most notable anarchists in history have been less radical, retaining altruism and a sense of the importance of the individual that is appreciable but does not go as far as egoism. Recent trends to greater appreciation of egoism within [[anarchism]] tend to come from less classical directions such as [[post-left anarchy]] or [[Situationism]] (e.g. [[Raoul Vaneigem]]). Egoism has also been referenced by [[Anarcho-capitalism|anarcho-capitalists]], such as [[Murray Rothbard]].

Philosopher [[Max Stirner]], in his book ''[[The Ego and Its Own]]'', was the first philosopher to call himself an egoist, though his writing makes clear that he desired not a new idea of morality (ethical egoism), but rather a rejection of morality ([[amoralism]]), as a nonexistent and limiting "spook"; for this, Stirner has been described as the first [[Individualist anarchism|individualist anarchist]]. Other philosophers, such as [[Thomas Hobbes]] and [[David Gauthier]], have argued that the conflicts which arise when people each pursue their own ends can be resolved for the best of each individual only if they all voluntarily forgo some of their aims—that is, one's self-interest is often best pursued by allowing others to pursue their self-interest as well so that liberty is equal among individuals. Sacrificing one's short-term self-interest to maximize one's long-term self-interest is one form of "[[Rational selfishness|rational self-interest]]" which is the idea behind most philosophers' advocacy of ethical egoism. Egoists have also argued that one's actual interests are not immediately obvious, and that the pursuit of self-interest involves more than merely the acquisition of some good, but the ''maximizing'' of one's chances of survival and/or happiness.

Philosopher [[Friedrich Nietzsche]] suggested that egoistic or "life-affirming" behavior stimulates jealousy or "[[ressentiment]]" in others, and that this is the psychological motive for the altruism in [[Christianity]]. Sociologist [[Helmut Schoeck]] similarly considered [[envy]] the motive of collective efforts by society to reduce the disproportionate gains of successful individuals through moral or legal constraints, with altruism being primary among these.<ref>[[Helmut Schoeck|Schoeck, Helmut]], ''Der Neid. Eine Theorie der Gesellschaft'' (''Envy. A Theory of Social Behaviour''), 1966, 1st English ed. 1969.</ref>  In addition, Nietzsche (in ''[[Beyond Good and Evil]]'') and [[Alasdair MacIntyre]] (in ''[[After Virtue]]'') have pointed out that the [[ancient Greeks]] did not associate [[morality]] with altruism in the way that post-Christian [[Western culture|Western civilization]] has done.
[[Aristotle]]'s view is that we have duties to ourselves as well as to other people (e.g. friends) and to the ''[[polis]]'' as a whole. The same is true for [[Thomas Aquinas]], [[Christian Wolff (philosopher)|Christian Wolff]] and [[Immanuel Kant]], who claim that there are duties to ourselves as Aristotle did, although it has been argued that, for Aristotle, the duty to one's self is primary.<ref>Wheeler, Jack, "Rand and Aristotle," in Den Uyl and Rasmussen, ''[[The Philosophic Thought of Ayn Rand]]'', 1986.</ref>

[[Ayn Rand]] argued that there is a positive harmony of interests among free, rational humans, such that no moral agent can rationally coerce another person consistently with their own long-term self-interest. Rand argued that other people are an enormous value to an individual's well-being (through education, trade and affection), but also that this value could be fully realized only under conditions of political and economic freedom. According to Rand, voluntary trade alone can assure that human interaction is ''mutually'' beneficial.<ref>Rand, Ayn, ''[[The Virtue of Selfishness]]'' (1964).</ref> Rand's student, [[Leonard Peikoff]] has argued that the identification of one's interests itself is impossible absent the use of principles, and that self-interest cannot be consistently pursued absent a consistent adherence to certain ethical principles.<ref>Peikoff, Leonard, "Why Should One Act on Principle?," ''The Objectivist Forum'', 1988, originally delivered at the [[Ford Hall Forum]].</ref> Recently, Rand's position has also been defended by such writers as [[Tara Smith (philosopher)|Tara Smith]], [[Tibor Machan]], [[Allan Gotthelf]], [[David Kelley]], [[Douglas Rasmussen]], [[Nathaniel Branden]], [[Harry Binswanger]], [[Andrew Bernstein (philosopher)|Andrew Bernstein]], and [[Craig Biddle]].

Philosopher [[David L. Norton]] identified himself as an "ethical individualist", and, like Rand, saw a harmony between an individual's fidelity to their own self-actualization, or "personal destiny", and the achievement of society's well-being.<ref>[[David L. Norton|Norton, David]], ''Personal Destinies: A Philosophy of Ethical Individualism'', 1976, [[Princeton University Press]].</ref>